initial import from bash_3.1dfsg.orig.tar.gz

18 files changed, 21145 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/doc/FAQ b/doc/FAQ
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e69de29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/FAQ
diff --git a/doc/INTRO b/doc/INTRO
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29f208a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/INTRO
@@ -0,0 +1,187 @@
+		       BASH - The Bourne-Again Shell
+
+Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter, that will appear
+in the GNU operating system.  Bash is an sh-compatible shell that
+incorporates useful features from the Korn shell (ksh) and C shell
+(csh).  It is intended to conform to the IEEE POSIX P1003.2/ISO 9945.2
+Shell and Tools standard.  It offers functional improvements over sh
+for both programming and interactive use.  In addition, most sh scripts
+can be run by Bash without modification. 
+
+Bash is quite portable.  It uses a configuration system that discovers
+characteristics of the compilation platform at build time, and may
+therefore be built on nearly every version of UNIX.  Ports to
+UNIX-like systems such as QNX and Minix and to non-UNIX systems such
+as OS/2, Windows 95, and Windows NT are available. 
+
+Bash includes the following features:
+
+Editing and Completion
+
+Bash offers a command-line editing facility which permits users to
+edit command lines using familiar emacs or vi-style editing commands.
+Editing allows corrections to be made without having to erase back
+to the point of error or start the command line anew.  The editing
+facilities include a feature that allows users to complete command and
+file names.
+
+The Bash line editing library is fully customizable.  Users may define
+their own key bindings -- the action taken when a key is pressed.  A
+number of variables to fine-tune editing behavior are also available.
+
+History and Command Re-entry
+
+The Bash history feature remembers commands entered to the shell and
+allows them to be recalled and re-executed.  The history list may be
+of unlimited size.  Bash allows users to search for previous commands
+and reuse portions of those commands when composing new ones.  The
+history list may be saved across shell sessions. 
+
+Bash allows users to control which commands are saved on the history
+list.
+
+Job Control
+
+On systems that support it, Bash provides an interface to the
+operating system's job control facilities, which allow processes
+to be suspended and restarted, and moved between the foreground
+and background.  Bash allows users to selectively `forget' about
+background jobs. 
+
+Shell Functions and Aliases
+
+These mechanisms are available to bind a user-selected identifier to a
+list of commands that will be executed when the identifier is used as
+a command name.  Functions allow local variables and recursion, and
+have access to the environment of the calling shell.  Aliases may be
+used to create a mnemonic for a command name, expand a single word to
+a complex command, or ensure that a command is called with a basic set
+of options. 
+
+Arrays
+
+Bash-2.0 supports indexed arrays of unlimited size.  The subscript for
+an array is an arithmetic expression.  Arrays may be assigned to with
+a new compound assignment syntax, and several builtins have options to
+operate on array variables.  Bash includes a number of built-in array
+variables.
+
+Arithmetic
+
+Bash allows users to perform integer arithmetic in any base from two
+to sixty-four.  Nearly all of the C language arithmetic operators are
+available with the same syntax and precedence as in C.  Arithmetic
+expansion allows an arithmetic expression to be evaluated and the
+result substituted into the command line.  Shell variables can be used
+as operands, and the value of an expression may be assigned to a
+variable. 
+
+An arithmetic expression may be used as a command; the exit status of
+the command is the value of the expression.
+
+ANSI-C Quoting
+
+There is a new quoting syntax that allows backslash-escaped characters
+in strings to be expanded according to the ANSI C standard.
+
+Tilde Expansion
+
+Users' home directories may be expanded using this feature.  Words
+beginning with a tilde may also be expanded to the current or previous
+working directory.
+
+Brace Expansion
+
+Brace expansion is a convenient way to generate a list of strings that
+share a common prefix or suffix.
+
+Substring Capabilities
+
+Bash allows new strings to be created by removing leading or trailing
+substrings from existing variable values, or by specifying a starting
+offset and length.  Portions of variable values may be matched against
+shell patterns and the matching portion removed or a new value
+substituted. 
+
+Indirect Variable Expansion
+
+Bash makes it easy to find the value of a shell variable whose name is
+the value of another variable.
+
+Expanded I/O Capabilities
+
+Bash provides several input and output features not available in sh,
+including the ability to:
+
+	o specify a file or file descriptor for both input and output
+	o read from or write to asynchronous processes using named pipes
+	o read lines ending in backslash
+	o display a prompt on the terminal before a read
+	o format menus and interpret responses to them
+	o echo lines exactly as input without escape processing
+
+Control of Builtin Commands
+
+Bash implements several builtin commands to give users more control
+over which commands are executed.  The enable builtin allows other
+builtin commands to be selectively enabled or disabled.  The command
+and builtin builtins change the order in which the shell searches for
+commands. 
+
+On systems that provide dynamic loading, new builtins may be loaded
+into a running shell from a shared object file.  These new builtins
+have access to all of the shell facilities.
+
+Help
+
+Bash includes a built-in help facility.
+
+Shell Optional Behavior
+
+There is a great deal of customizable shell behavior.  The shopt
+builtin command provides a unified interface that allows users to
+alter shell defaults. 
+
+Prompt Customization
+
+Bash allows the primary and secondary prompts to be customized by
+interpreting a number of backslash-escaped special characters. 
+Parameter and variable expansion is also performed on the values of
+the primary and secondary prompt strings before they are displayed. 
+
+Security
+
+Bash provides a restricted shell environment.  It is also possible to
+control the execution of setuid/setgid scripts. 
+
+Directory Stack
+
+Bash provides a `directory stack', to which directories may be added
+and removed.  The current directory may be changed to any directory in
+the stack.  It is easy to toggle between two directories in the stack. 
+The directory stack may be saved and restored across different shell
+invocations. 
+
+POSIX Mode
+
+Bash is nearly completely conformant to POSIX.2.  POSIX mode changes
+those few areas where the Bash default behavior differs from the
+standard to match the standard.  In POSIX mode, Bash is POSIX.2
+compliant. 
+
+Internationalization
+
+Bash provides a new quoting syntax that allows strings to be
+translated according to the current locale.  The locale in which the
+shell itself runs may also be changed, so that the shell messages
+themselves may be language-specific. 
+
+The command-line editing facilities allow the input of eight-bit
+characters, so most of the ISO-8859 family of character sets are
+supported. 
+
+Command Timing
+
+Bash allows external commands, shell builtin commands and shell functions
+to be timed.  The format used to display the timing information may be
+changed by the user.
diff --git a/doc/Makefile.in b/doc/Makefile.in
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..270ddfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/Makefile.in
@@ -0,0 +1,291 @@
+# This Makefile is for the Bash/documentation directory -*- text -*-.
+#
+# Copyright (C) 2003 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+
+# This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option)
+# any later version.
+
+# This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+# but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+# MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+# GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+# You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+# along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
+# Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111 USA.
+
+PACKAGE = @PACKAGE_NAME@
+VERSION = @PACKAGE_VERSION@
+
+PACKAGE_BUGREPORT = @PACKAGE_BUGREPORT@
+PACKAGE_NAME = @PACKAGE_NAME@
+PACKAGE_STRING = @PACKAGE_STRING@
+PACKAGE_VERSION = @PACKAGE_VERSION@
+
+#
+SHELL = @MAKE_SHELL@
+RM	    = rm -f
+
+topdir = @top_srcdir@
+srcdir = @srcdir@
+VPATH = .:@srcdir@
+
+prefix = @prefix@
+exec_prefix = @exec_prefix@
+
+infodir = @infodir@
+
+# set this to a directory name to have the HTML files installed
+htmldir = @htmldir@
+
+# Support an alternate destination root directory for package building
+DESTDIR =
+
+mandir = @mandir@
+manpfx = man
+
+man1ext = .1
+man1dir = $(mandir)/$(manpfx)1
+man3ext = .3
+man3dir = $(mandir)/$(manpfx)3
+
+INSTALL = @INSTALL@
+INSTALL_DATA = @INSTALL_DATA@
+BUILD_DIR = @BUILD_DIR@
+
+SUPPORT_SRCDIR = $(topdir)/support
+
+# bad style
+RL_LIBDIR = $(topdir)/lib/readline
+
+# unused
+TEXINDEX    = texindex
+TEX	    = tex
+
+MAKEINFO    = makeinfo
+TEXI2DVI    = ${SUPPORT_SRCDIR}/texi2dvi
+TEXI2HTML   = ${SUPPORT_SRCDIR}/texi2html
+MAN2HTML    = ${BUILD_DIR}/support/man2html
+HTMLPOST    = ${srcdir}/htmlpost.sh
+INFOPOST    = ${srcdir}/infopost.sh
+QUIETPS	    = #set this to -q to shut up dvips
+PAPERSIZE   = letter	# change to a4 for A4-size paper
+PSDPI       = 600	# could be 300 if you like
+DVIPS	    = dvips -D ${PSDPI} $(QUIETPS) -t ${PAPERSIZE} -o $@	# tricky
+
+TEXINPUTDIR = $(RL_LIBDIR)/doc
+SET_TEXINPUTS = TEXINPUTS=.:$(TEXINPUTDIR):$$TEXINPUTS
+
+# These tools might not be available; they're not required
+DVIPDF	    = dvipdfm -o $@ -p ${PAPERSIZE}
+PSPDF       = gs -sPAPERSIZE=${PAPERSIZE} -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sOutputFile=$@
+
+MKDIRS      = ${SUPPORT_SRCDIR}/mkdirs
+
+# This should be a program that converts troff to an ascii-readable format
+NROFF	    = groff -Tascii
+
+# This should be a program that converts troff to postscript
+GROFF	    = groff
+
+HSUSER      = $(RL_LIBDIR)/doc/hsuser.texi
+RLUSER      = $(RL_LIBDIR)/doc/rluser.texi
+
+BASHREF_FILES = $(srcdir)/bashref.texi $(srcdir)/version.texi
+
+.SUFFIXES:	.0 .1 .3 .ms .ps .txt .dvi .html .pdf
+
+.1.ps:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${GROFF} -man $< > $@
+
+.1.0:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${NROFF} -man $< > $@
+
+.1.html:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${MAN2HTML} $< | ${HTMLPOST} > $@
+
+.ms.ps:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${GROFF} -ms $< > $@
+
+.ms.txt:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${NROFF} -ms $< > $@
+
+.3.ps:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${GROFF} -man $< > $@
+
+.3.0:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${NROFF} -man $< > $@
+
+.3.html:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${MAN2HTML} $< > $@
+
+.ps.pdf:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${PSPDF} $<
+
+.dvi.pdf:
+	$(RM) $@
+	-${DVIPDF} $<
+
+.dvi.ps:
+	${RM} $@
+	-${DVIPS} $<
+
+all: ps info dvi text html
+nodvi: ps info text html
+
+PSFILES = bash.ps bashbug.ps article.ps builtins.ps rbash.ps 
+DVIFILES = bashref.dvi bashref.ps
+INFOFILES = bashref.info
+MAN0FILES = bash.0 bashbug.0 builtins.0 rbash.0
+HTMLFILES = bashref.html bash.html
+PDFFILES = bash.pdf bashref.pdf article.pdf rose94.pdf
+
+ps: ${PSFILES}
+dvi: ${DVIFILES}
+info: ${INFOFILES}
+text: ${MAN0FILES}
+html: ${HTMLFILES}
+pdf: ${PDFFILES}
+
+bashref.dvi: $(BASHREF_FILES) $(HSUSER) $(RLUSER)
+	${SET_TEXINPUTS} $(TEXI2DVI) $(srcdir)/bashref.texi
+
+bashref.info: $(BASHREF_FILES) $(HSUSER) $(RLUSER)
+	$(MAKEINFO) --no-split -I$(TEXINPUTDIR) $(srcdir)/bashref.texi
+
+bashref.html: $(BASHREF_FILES) $(HSUSER) $(RLUSER)
+	$(TEXI2HTML) -menu -monolithic -I $(TEXINPUTDIR) $(srcdir)/bashref.texi
+
+bash.info: bashref.info
+	${SHELL} ${INFOPOST} < $(srcdir)/bashref.info > $@ ; \
+
+bash.txt: bash.1
+bash.ps: bash.1
+bash.html: bash.1 $(MAN2HTML)
+bashbug.ps: bashbug.1
+builtins.ps: builtins.1 bash.1
+rbash.ps: rbash.1 bash.1
+bash.0: bash.1
+bashbug.0: bashbug.1
+builtins.0: builtins.1 bash.1
+rbash.0: rbash.1 bash.1
+article.ps: article.ms
+
+bashref.ps: bashref.dvi
+
+article.pdf: article.ps
+bashref.pdf: bashref.dvi
+bash.pdf: bash.ps
+rose94.pdf: rose94.ps
+
+$(MAN2HTML):	${topdir}/support/man2html.c
+	-( cd ${BUILD_DIR}/support ; ${MAKE} ${MFLAGS} man2html)
+
+clean:
+	$(RM) *.aux *.bak *.cp *.fn *.ky *.log *.pg *.toc *.tp *.vr *.cps \
+		*.pgs *.bt *.bts *.rw *.rws *.fns *.kys *.tps *.vrs *.o
+	${RM} core *.core
+
+mostlyclean: clean
+	$(RM) Makefile
+
+distclean: clean maybe-clean
+	$(RM) Makefile
+
+maintainer-clean:	clean
+	${RM} ${PSFILES} ${DVIFILES} ${INFOFILES} ${MAN0FILES} ${HTMLFILES}
+	${RM} ${CREATED_FAQ}
+	$(RM) Makefile
+
+maybe-clean:
+	-if test "X$(topdir)" != "X$(BUILD_DIR)"; then \
+		$(RM) ${PSFILES} ${DVIFILES} ${INFOFILES} ${MAN0FILES} ${HTMLFILES}; \
+	fi
+
+installdirs:
+	-$(SHELL) $(SUPPORT_SRCDIR)/mkinstalldirs $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)
+	-$(SHELL) $(SUPPORT_SRCDIR)/mkinstalldirs $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)
+	-if test -n "$(htmldir)" ; then \
+		$(SHELL) $(SUPPORT_SRCDIR)/mkinstalldirs $(DESTDIR)$(htmldir) ; \
+	fi
+	
+install: info installdirs bash.info
+	-$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/bash.1 $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)/bash${man1ext}
+	-$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/bashbug.1 $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)/bashbug${man1ext}
+# uncomment the next line to install the builtins man page
+#	-$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/builtins.1 $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)/bash_builtins${man1ext}
+	-$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/bash.info $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/bash.info
+# run install-info if it is present to update the info directory
+	if $(SHELL) -c 'install-info --version' >/dev/null 2>&1; then \
+		install-info --dir-file=$(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/dir $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/bash.info; \
+	else true; fi
+# if htmldir is set, install the html files into that directory
+	-if test -n "${htmldir}" ; then \
+		$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/bash.html $(DESTDIR)$(htmldir) ; \
+		$(INSTALL_DATA) $(srcdir)/bashref.html $(DESTDIR)$(htmldir) ; \
+	fi
+
+uninstall:
+	-$(RM) $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)/bash${man1ext} $(DESTDIR)$(man1dir)/bashbug${man1ext}
+	$(RM) $(DESTDIR)$(infodir)/bash.info
+	-if test -n "$(htmldir)" ; then \
+		$(RM) $(DESTDIR)$(htmldir)/bash.html ; \
+		$(RM) $(DESTDIR)$(htmldir)/bashref.html ; \
+	fi
+
+# for use by chet
+CREATED_FAQ = faq.news faq.news2 faq.mail faq.version
+
+faq:	${CREATED_FAQ}
+
+faq.version:	FAQ.version FAQ
+	sh mkfaqvers FAQ.version > $@
+
+faq.headers.mail: FAQ.headers.mail FAQ
+	sh mkfaqvers FAQ.headers.mail > $@
+
+faq.headers.news: FAQ.headers.news FAQ
+	sh mkfaqvers FAQ.headers.news > $@
+
+faq.headers.news2: FAQ.headers.news2 FAQ
+	sh mkfaqvers FAQ.headers.news2 > $@
+
+faq.news: FAQ faq.headers.news faq.version
+	$(RM) $@
+	cat faq.headers.news faq.version FAQ > $@
+
+faq.news2: FAQ faq.headers.news2 faq.version
+	$(RM) $@
+	cat faq.headers.news2 faq.version FAQ > $@
+
+faq.mail: FAQ faq.headers.mail faq.version
+	$(RM) $@
+	cat faq.headers.mail faq.version FAQ > $@
+
+inst:	bashref.texi
+	$(SHELL) ./mkinstall
+	cmp -s INSTALL ../INSTALL || mv INSTALL ../INSTALL
+	$(RM) INSTALL
+
+posix:	bashref.texi
+	$(SHELL) ./mkposix
+	cmp -s POSIX ../POSIX || mv POSIX ../POSIX
+	$(RM) POSIX
+
+rbash:	bashref.texi
+	$(SH) ./mkrbash
+	cmp -s RBASH ../RBASH || mv RBASH ../RBASH
+	$(RM) RBASH
+
+xdist: pdf inst posix rbash
diff --git a/doc/README b/doc/README
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3a1d24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/README
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+This directory contains the bash documentation.
+
+FAQ		- a set of frequently-asked questions about Bash with answers
+INTRO		- a short introduction to bash
+article.ms	- an article I wrote about bash for The Linux Journal
+bash.1		- the bash man page
+builtins.1	- a man page that documents the builtins, extracted from bash.1
+bashref.texi	- the `bash reference manual'
+bashref.info	- the `bash reference manual' processed by `makeinfo'
+readline.3	- the readline man page
+
+The `.ps' files are postscript versions of the above.  The `.html'
+files are HTML versions of the man page and reference manual.  The
+`.0' files are formatted manual pages.  The `.txt' versions are
+ascii -- the output of `groff -Tascii'.
+
+The rest of this file explains how to use the `builtins.1' man page.
+
+For each command in the list of builtins create a file in man/man1 called:
+
+${command}.1
+
+eg.
+for.1
+type.1
+alias.1
+etc.
+
+All these files are identical as follows:
+
+jaws@jaws(264)$ cat alias.1
+.so man1/builtins.1
+jaws@jaws(265)$ 
+
+Make sure you adjust the .so line in builtins.1 to reflect where you
+put it.
diff --git a/doc/article.ms b/doc/article.ms
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..517155a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/article.ms
@@ -0,0 +1,1114 @@
+.de SE	\" start example
+.sp .5
+.RS
+.ft CR
+.nf
+..
+.de EE	\" end example
+.fi
+.sp .5
+.RE
+.ft R
+..
+.TL
+Bash \- The GNU shell*
+.AU
+Chet Ramey
+Case Western Reserve University
+chet@po.cwru.edu
+.FS
+*An earlier version of this article appeared in The Linux Journal.
+.FE
+.NH 1
+Introduction
+.PP
+.B Bash
+is the shell, or command language interpreter,
+that will appear in the GNU operating system.
+The name is an acronym for
+the \*QBourne-Again SHell\*U, a pun on Steve Bourne, the author
+of the direct ancestor of the current
+.UX
+shell \fI/bin/sh\fP,
+which appeared in the Seventh Edition Bell Labs Research version
+of \s-1UNIX\s+1.
+.PP
+Bash is an \fBsh\fP\-compatible shell that incorporates useful
+features from the Korn shell (\fBksh\fP) and the C shell (\fBcsh\fP),
+described later in this article.  It is ultimately intended to be a
+conformant implementation of the IEEE POSIX Shell and Utilities
+specification (IEEE Working Group 1003.2).  It offers functional
+improvements over sh for both interactive and programming use.
+.PP
+While the GNU operating system will most likely include a version
+of the Berkeley shell csh, Bash will be the default shell.
+Like other GNU software, Bash is quite portable.  It currently runs
+on nearly every version of
+.UX
+and a few other operating systems \- an independently-supported
+port exists for OS/2, and there are rumors of ports to DOS and
+Windows NT.  Ports to \s-1UNIX\s+1-like systems such as QNX and Minix
+are part of the distribution.
+.PP
+The original author of Bash
+was Brian Fox, an employee of the Free Software Foundation.  The
+current developer and maintainer is Chet Ramey, a volunteer who
+works at Case Western Reserve University.
+.NH 1
+What's POSIX, anyway?
+.PP
+.I POSIX
+is a name originally coined by Richard Stallman for a family of open
+system standards based on \s-1UNIX\s+1.  There are a number of aspects of \s-1UNIX\s+1
+under consideration for standardization, from the basic system services
+at the system call and C library level to applications and tools to system
+administration and management.  Each area of standardization is
+assigned to a working group in the 1003 series.
+.PP
+The POSIX Shell and Utilities standard has been developed by IEEE Working
+Group 1003.2 (POSIX.2).\(dd
+.FS
+\(ddIEEE, \fIIEEE Standard for Information Technology -- Portable
+Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2: Shell and Utilities\fP,
+1992.
+.FE
+It concentrates on the command interpreter
+interface and utility programs
+commonly executed from the command line or by other programs.
+An initial version of the standard has been
+approved and published by the IEEE, and work is currently underway to
+update it.
+There are four primary areas of work in the 1003.2 standard:
+.IP \(bu
+Aspects of the shell's syntax and command language.
+A number of special builtins such as
+.B cd
+and
+.B exec
+are being specified as part of the shell, since their
+functionality usually cannot be implemented by a separate executable;
+.IP \(bu
+A set of utilities to be called by shell scripts and applications.
+Examples are programs like
+.I sed,
+.I tr,
+and
+.I awk.
+Utilities commonly implemented as shell builtins
+are described in this section, such as
+.B test
+and
+.B kill .
+An expansion of this section's scope, termed the User Portability
+Extension, or UPE, has standardized interactive programs such as
+.I vi
+and
+.I mailx;
+.IP \(bu
+A group of functional interfaces to services provided by the
+shell, such as the traditional \f(CRsystem()\fP
+C library function.  There are functions to perform shell word
+expansions, perform filename expansion (\fIglobbing\fP), obtain values
+of POSIX.2 system configuration variables, retrieve values of
+environment variables (\f(CRgetenv()\fP\^), and other services;
+.IP \(bu
+A suite of \*Qdevelopment\*U utilities such as
+.I c89
+(the POSIX.2 version of \fIcc\fP),
+and
+.I yacc.
+.PP
+Bash is concerned with the aspects of the shell's behavior
+defined by POSIX.2.  The shell command language has of
+course been standardized, including the basic flow control
+and program execution constructs, I/O redirection and
+pipelining, argument handling, variable expansion, and quoting.
+The
+.I special
+builtins, which must be implemented as part of the shell to
+provide the desired functionality, are specified as being
+part of the shell; examples of these are
+.B eval
+and
+.B export .
+Other utilities appear in the sections of POSIX.2 not
+devoted to the shell which are commonly (and in some
+cases must be) implemented as builtin commands, such as
+.B read
+and
+.B test .
+POSIX.2 also specifies aspects of the shell's
+interactive behavior as part of
+the UPE, including job control and command line editing.
+Interestingly enough, only \fIvi\fP-style line editing commands
+have been standardized; \fIemacs\fP editing commands were left
+out due to objections.
+.PP
+While POSIX.2 includes much of what the shell has traditionally
+provided, some important things have been omitted as being
+\*Qbeyond its scope.\*U  There is, for instance, no mention of
+a difference between a
+.I login
+shell and any other interactive shell (since POSIX.2 does not
+specify a login program).  No fixed startup files are defined,
+either \- the standard does not mention
+.I .profile .
+.NH 1
+Basic Bash features
+.PP
+Since the Bourne shell
+provides Bash with most of its philosophical underpinnings,
+Bash inherits most of its features and functionality from sh.
+Bash implements all of the traditional sh flow
+control constructs (\fIfor\fP, \fIif\fP, \fIwhile\fP, etc.).
+All of the Bourne shell builtins, including those not specified in
+the POSIX.2 standard, appear in Bash.  Shell \fIfunctions\fP,
+introduced in the SVR2 version of the Bourne shell,
+are similar to shell scripts, but are defined using a special
+syntax and are executed in the same process as the calling shell.
+Bash has shell functions
+which behave in a fashion upward-compatible with sh functions.
+There are certain shell
+variables that Bash interprets in the same way as sh, such as
+.B PS1 ,
+.B IFS ,
+and
+.B PATH .
+Bash implements essentially the same grammar, parameter and
+variable expansion semantics, redirection, and quoting as the
+Bourne shell.  Where differences appear between the POSIX.2
+standard and traditional sh behavior, Bash follows POSIX.
+.PP
+The Korn Shell (\fBksh\fP) is a descendent of the Bourne shell written
+at AT&T Bell Laboratories by David Korn\(dg.  It provides a number of
+useful features that POSIX and Bash have adopted.  Many of the
+interactive facilities in POSIX.2 have their roots in the ksh:
+for example, the POSIX and ksh job control facilities are nearly
+identical. Bash includes features from the Korn Shell for both
+interactive use and shell programming.  For programming, Bash provides
+variables such as
+.B RANDOM
+and
+.B REPLY ,
+the
+.B typeset
+builtin,
+the ability to remove substrings from variables based on patterns,
+and shell arithmetic.
+.FS
+\(dgMorris Bolsky and David Korn, \fIThe KornShell Command and
+Programming Language\fP, Prentice Hall, 1989.
+.FE
+.B RANDOM
+expands to a random number each time it is referenced; assigning a
+value to
+.B RANDOM
+seeds the random number generator.
+.B REPLY
+is the default variable used by the
+.B read
+builtin when no variable names are supplied as arguments.
+The
+.B typeset
+builtin is used to define variables and give them attributes
+such as \fBreadonly\fP.
+Bash arithmetic allows the evaluation of an expression and the
+substitution of the result.  Shell variables may be used as operands,
+and the result of an expression may be assigned to a variable.
+Nearly all of the operators from the C language are available,
+with the same precedence rules:
+.SE
+$ echo $((3 + 5 * 32))
+163
+.EE
+.LP
+For interactive use, Bash implements ksh-style aliases and builtins
+such as
+.B fc
+(discussed below) and
+.B jobs .
+Bash aliases allow a string to be substituted for a command name.
+They can be used to create a mnemonic for a \s-1UNIX\s+1 command
+name (\f(CRalias del=rm\fP), to expand a single word to a complex command
+(\f(CRalias news='xterm -g 80x45 -title trn -e trn -e -S1 -N &'\fP), or to
+ensure that a command is invoked with a basic set of options
+(\f(CRalias ls="/bin/ls -F"\fP).
+.PP
+The C shell (\fBcsh\fP)\(dg, originally written by Bill Joy while at
+Berkeley, is widely used and quite popular for its interactive
+facilities.  Bash includes a csh-compatible history expansion
+mechanism (\*Q! history\*U), brace expansion, access to a stack
+of directories via the
+.B pushd ,
+.B popd ,
+and
+.B dirs
+builtins, and tilde expansion, to generate users' home directories.
+Tilde expansion has also been adopted by both the Korn Shell and
+POSIX.2.
+.FS
+\(dgBill Joy, An Introduction to the C Shell, \fIUNIX User's Supplementary
+Documents\fP, University of California at Berkeley, 1986.
+.FE
+.PP
+There were certain areas in which POSIX.2 felt standardization
+was necessary, but no existing implementation provided the proper
+behavior.  The working group invented and standardized functionality
+in these areas, which Bash implements.  The
+.B command
+builtin was invented so that shell functions could be written to
+replace builtins; it makes the capabilities of the builtin
+available to the function.  The reserved word \*Q!\*U was added
+to negate the return value of a command or pipeline; it was nearly
+impossible to express \*Qif not x\*U cleanly using the sh language.
+There exist multiple incompatible implementations of the 
+.B test
+builtin, which tests files for type and other attributes and performs
+arithmetic and string comparisons.
+POSIX considered none of these correct, so the standard
+behavior was specified in terms of the number of arguments to the
+command.  POSIX.2 dictates exactly what will happen when four or
+fewer arguments are given to
+.B test ,
+and leaves the behavior undefined when more arguments are supplied.
+Bash uses the POSIX.2 algorithm, which was conceived by David Korn.
+.NH 2
+Features not in the Bourne Shell
+.PP
+There are a number of minor differences between Bash and the
+version of sh present on most other versions of \s-1UNIX\s+1.  The majority
+of these are due to the POSIX standard, but some are the result of
+Bash adopting features from other shells.  For instance, Bash
+includes the new \*Q!\*U reserved word, the
+.B command
+builtin, the ability of the
+.B read
+builtin to correctly return a line ending with a backslash, symbolic
+arguments to the
+.B umask
+builtin, variable substring removal, a way to get the length of a variable,
+and the new algorithm for the
+.B test
+builtin from the POSIX.2 standard, none of which appear in sh.
+.PP
+Bash also implements the \*Q$(...)\*U command substitution syntax,
+which supersedes the sh `...` construct.
+The \*Q$(...)\*U construct expands to the output of the command
+contained within the
+parentheses, with trailing newlines removed.  The sh syntax is
+accepted for backwards compatibility, but the \*Q$(...)\*U form
+is preferred because its quoting rules are much simpler and it
+is easier to nest.
+.PP
+The Bourne shell does not provide such features as brace expansion,
+the ability
+to define a variable and a function with the same name, local variables
+in shell functions, the ability to enable and disable individual
+builtins or write a function to replace a builtin, or a means to
+export a shell function to a child process.
+.PP
+Bash has closed
+a long-standing shell security hole by not using the
+.B $IFS
+variable to split each word read by the shell, but splitting only
+the results of expansion (ksh and the 4.4 BSD sh have fixed this
+as well).  Useful behavior such as a means to abort
+execution of a script read with the \*Q.\*U command using the
+\fBreturn\fP builtin or automatically
+exporting variables in the shell's environment to children is also
+not present in the Bourne shell.  Bash provides a much more powerful
+environment for both interactive use and programming.
+.NH 1
+Bash-specific Features
+.PP
+This section details a few of the features which make Bash unique.
+Most of them provide improved interactive use, but a few programming
+improvements are present as well.  Full descriptions of these
+features can be found in the Bash documentation.
+.NH 2
+Startup Files
+.PP
+Bash executes startup files differently than other shells.  The Bash
+behavior is a compromise between the csh principle of startup files
+with fixed names executed for each shell and the sh
+\*Qminimalist\*U behavior.  An interactive instance of Bash started
+as a login shell reads and executes
+.I ~/.bash_profile
+(the file .bash_profile in the user's home directory), if it exists.
+An interactive non-login shell reads and executes
+.I ~/.bashrc .
+A non-interactive shell (one begun to execute a shell script, for
+example) reads no fixed startup file, but uses the value of the variable
+.B $ENV ,
+if set, as the name of a startup file.  The ksh practice of reading
+.B $ENV
+for every shell, with the accompanying difficulty of defining the
+proper variables and functions for interactive and non-interactive
+shells or having the file read only for interactive shells, was
+considered too complex.  Ease of use won out here.  Interestingly,
+the next release of ksh will change to reading
+.B $ENV
+only for interactive shells.
+.NH 2
+New Builtin Commands
+.PP
+There are a few builtins which are new or have been extended in Bash.
+The
+.B enable
+builtin allows builtin commands to be turned on and off arbitrarily.
+To use the version of
+.I echo
+found in a user's search path rather than the Bash builtin,
+\f(CRenable -n echo\fP suffices.  The
+.B help
+builtin provides
+quick synopses of the shell facilities without requiring
+access to a manual page.
+.B Builtin
+is similar to
+.B command
+in that it bypasses shell functions and directly executes builtin
+commands.  Access to a csh-style stack of directories is provided
+via the
+.B pushd ,
+.B popd ,
+and
+.B dirs
+builtins.
+.B Pushd
+and
+.B popd
+insert and remove directories from the stack, respectively, and
+.B dirs
+lists the stack contents.  On systems that allow fine-grained control
+of resources, the
+.B ulimit
+builtin can be used to tune these settings.
+.B Ulimit
+allows a user to control,
+among other things, whether core dumps are to be generated,
+how much memory the shell or a child process is allowed to allocate,
+and how large a file created by a child process can grow.  The
+.B suspend
+command will stop the shell process when job control is active; most
+other shells do not allow themselves to be stopped like that.
+.B Type,
+the Bash answer to
+.B which
+and 
+.B whence,
+shows what will happen when a word is typed as a command:
+.SE
+$ type export
+export is a shell builtin
+$ type -t export
+builtin
+$ type bash
+bash is /bin/bash
+$ type cd
+cd is a function
+cd ()
+{
+    builtin cd ${1+"$@"} && xtitle $HOST: $PWD
+}
+.EE
+.LP
+Various
+modes tell what a command word is (reserved word, alias, function, builtin,
+or file) or which version of a command will be executed based on
+a user's search path.  Some of this functionality has been adopted
+by POSIX.2 and folded into the
+.B command
+utility.
+.NH 2
+Editing and Completion
+.PP
+One area in which Bash shines is command line editing.  Bash uses the
+.I readline
+library to read and edit lines when interactive.  Readline is a
+powerful and flexible input facility that a user can configure to
+individual tastes.  It allows lines to be edited using either emacs
+or vi commands, where those commands are appropriate.  The full
+capability of emacs is not present \- there is no way to execute
+a named command with M-x, for instance \- but the existing commands
+are more than adequate.  The vi mode is compliant with
+the command line editing standardized by POSIX.2.
+.PP
+Readline is fully customizable.  In addition to the basic commands
+and key bindings, the library allows users to define additional
+key bindings using a startup file.  The 
+.I inputrc
+file, which defaults to the file
+.I ~/.inputrc ,
+is read each time readline initializes, permitting users to
+maintain a consistent interface across a set of programs.  Readline
+includes an extensible interface, so each program using the
+library can add its own bindable commands and program-specific
+key bindings.  Bash uses this facility to add bindings
+that perform history expansion or shell word expansions on the current
+input line.
+.PP
+Readline interprets a number of
+variables which further tune its behavior.  Variables
+exist to control whether or not eight-bit characters are directly
+read as input or converted to meta-prefixed key sequences (a
+meta-prefixed key sequence consists of the character with the
+eighth bit zeroed, preceded by the
+.I meta-prefix
+character, usually escape, which selects an alternate keymap), to
+decide whether to output characters with the eighth bit set
+directly or as a meta-prefixed key sequence, whether or not to
+wrap to a new screen line when a line being edited is longer than
+the screen width, the keymap to which subsequent key bindings should
+apply, or even what happens when readline wants to
+ring the terminal's bell.  All of these variables can be set in
+the inputrc file.
+.PP
+The startup file understands a set of C
+preprocessor-like conditional constructs which allow variables or
+key bindings to be assigned based on the application using readline,
+the terminal currently being used, or the editing mode.  Users can
+add program-specific bindings to make their lives easier:  I have
+bindings that let me edit the value of
+.B $PATH
+and double-quote the current or previous word:
+.SE
+# Macros that are convenient for shell interaction
+$if Bash
+# edit the path
+"\eC-xp": "PATH=${PATH}\ee\eC-e\eC-a\eef\eC-f"
+# prepare to type a quoted word -- insert open and close double
+# quotes and move to just after the open quote
+"\eC-x\e"": "\e"\e"\eC-b"
+# Quote the current or previous word
+"\eC-xq": "\eeb\e"\eef\e""
+$endif
+.EE
+.LP
+There is a readline
+command to re-read the file, so users can edit the file, change
+some bindings, and begin to use them almost immediately.
+.PP
+Bash implements the
+.B bind
+builtin for more dyamic control of readline than the startup file
+permits.
+.B Bind
+is used in several ways.  In
+.I list
+mode, it can display the current key bindings, list all the
+readline editing directives available for binding, list which keys
+invoke a given directive, or output the current set of key
+bindings in a format that can be incorporated directly into an inputrc
+file.  In
+.I batch
+mode, it reads a series of key bindings directly from a file and
+passes them to readline.  In its most common usage,
+.B bind
+takes a single string and passes it directly to readline, which
+interprets the line as if it had just been read from the inputrc file.
+Both key bindings and variable assignments may appear in the
+string given to
+.B bind .
+.PP
+The readline library also provides an interface for \fIword completion\fP.
+When the
+.I completion
+character (usually TAB) is typed, readline looks at the word currently
+being entered and computes the set of filenames of which the current
+word is a valid prefix.
+If there is only one possible completion, the
+rest of the characters are inserted directly, otherwise the 
+common prefix of the set of filenames is added to the current word.
+A second TAB character entered immediately after a non-unique
+completion causes readline to list the possible completions; there is
+an option to have the list displayed immediately.
+Readline provides hooks so that applications can provide specific types
+of completion before the default filename completion is attempted.
+This is quite flexible, though it is not completely user-programmable.
+Bash, for example, can complete filenames, command names (including aliases,
+builtins, shell reserved words, shell functions, and executables found
+in the file system), shell variables, usernames, and hostnames.  It
+uses a set of heuristics that, while not perfect, is generally quite
+good at determining what type of completion to attempt.
+.NH 2
+History
+.PP
+Access to the list of commands previously entered (the \fIcommand history\fP)
+is provided jointly by Bash and the readline library.  Bash provides
+variables (\fB$HISTFILE\fP, \fB$HISTSIZE\fP, and \fB$HISTCONTROL\fP)
+and the
+.B history
+and
+.B fc
+builtins to manipulate the history list.
+The value of
+.B $HISTFILE
+specifes the file where Bash writes the command history on exit and
+reads it on startup.
+.B $HISTSIZE
+is used to limit the number of commands saved in the history.
+.B $HISTCONTROL
+provides a crude form of control over which commands are saved on
+the history list: a value of
+.I ignorespace
+means to not save commands which begin with a space; a value of
+.I ignoredups
+means to not save commands identical to the last command saved.
+\fB$HISTCONTROL\fP was named \fB$history_control\fP in earlier
+versions of Bash; the old name is still accepted for backwards
+compatibility.  The
+.B history
+command can read or write files containing the history list
+and display the current list contents.  The
+.B fc
+builtin, adopted from POSIX.2 and the Korn Shell, allows display
+and re-execution, with optional editing,
+of commands from the history list.  The readline
+library offers a set of commands to search the history list for
+a portion of the current input line or a string typed by the user.
+Finally, the
+.I history
+library, generally incorporated directly into the readline library,
+implements a facility for history recall, expansion, and re-execution
+of previous commands very similar to csh
+(\*Qbang history\*U, so called because the exclamation point
+introduces a history substitution):
+.SE
+$ echo a b c d e
+a b c d e
+$ !! f g h i
+echo a b c d e f g h i
+a b c d e f g h i
+$ !-2
+echo a b c d e
+a b c d e
+$ echo !-2:1-4
+echo a b c d
+a b c d
+.EE
+.LP
+The command history is only
+saved when the shell is interactive, so it is not available for use
+by shell scripts.
+.NH 2
+New Shell Variables
+.PP
+There are a number of convenience variables that Bash interprets
+to make life easier.  These include
+.B FIGNORE ,
+which is a set of filename suffixes identifying files to exclude when
+completing filenames;
+.B HOSTTYPE ,
+which is automatically set to a string describing the type of
+hardware on which Bash is currently executing;
+.B command_oriented_history ,
+which directs Bash to save all lines of a multiple-line
+command such as a \fIwhile\fP or \fIfor\fP loop in a single
+history entry, allowing easy re-editing; and
+.B IGNOREEOF ,
+whose value indicates the number of consecutive EOF characters that
+an interactive shell will read before exiting \- an easy way to keep
+yourself from being logged out accidentally.  The
+.B auto_resume
+variable alters the way the shell treats simple command names:
+if job control is active, and this variable is set, single-word
+simple commands without redirections cause the shell to first
+look for and restart a suspended job with that name before
+starting a new process.
+.NH 2
+Brace Expansion
+.PP
+Since sh offers no convenient way to generate arbitrary strings that
+share a common prefix or suffix (filename expansion requires that
+the filenames exist), Bash implements \fIbrace expansion\fP, a
+capability picked up from csh.
+Brace expansion is similar to filename expansion, but the strings
+generated need not correspond to existing files.  A brace expression
+consists of an optional
+.I preamble ,
+followed by a pair of braces enclosing a series of comma-separated
+strings, and an optional
+.I postamble .
+The preamble is prepended to each string within the braces, and the
+postamble is then appended to each resulting string:
+.SE
+$ echo a{d,c,b}e
+ade ace abe
+.EE
+.LP
+As this example demonstrates, the results of brace expansion are not
+sorted, as they are by filename expansion.
+.NH 2
+Process Substitution
+.PP
+On systems that can support it, Bash provides a facility known as
+\fIprocess substitution\fP.  Process substitution is similar to command
+substitution in that its specification includes a command to execute,
+but the shell does not collect the command's output and insert it into
+the command line.  Rather, Bash opens a pipe to the command, which
+is run in the background.  The shell uses named pipes (FIFOs) or the
+.I /dev/fd
+method of naming open files to expand the process
+substitution to a filename which connects to the pipe when opened.
+This filename becomes the result of the expansion.  Process substitution
+can be used to compare the outputs of two different versions of an
+application as part of a regression test:
+.SE
+$ cmp <(old_prog) <(new_prog)
+.EE
+.NH 2
+Prompt Customization
+.PP
+One of the more popular interactive features that Bash provides is
+the ability to customize the prompt.  Both
+.B $PS1
+and
+.B $PS2,
+the primary and secondary prompts, are expanded before being
+displayed.  Parameter and variable expansion is performed when
+the prompt string is expanded, so any shell variable can be
+put into the prompt (e.g., 
+.B $SHLVL ,
+which indicates how deeply the current shell is nested).
+Bash specially interprets characters in the prompt string
+preceded by a backslash.  Some of these backslash escapes are
+replaced with 
+the current time, the date, the current working directory,
+the username, and the command number or history number of the command
+being entered.  There is even a backslash escape to cause the shell
+to change its prompt when running as root after an \fIsu\fP.
+Before printing each primary prompt, Bash expands the variable 
+.B $PROMPT_COMMAND 
+and, if it has a value, executes the expanded value as a command,
+allowing additional prompt customization.  For example, this assignment
+causes the current user, the current host, the time, the last
+component of the current working directory, the level of shell
+nesting, and the history number of the current command to be embedded
+into the primary prompt:
+.SE
+$ PS1='\eu@\eh [\et] \eW($SHLVL:\e!)\e$ '
+chet@odin [21:03:44] documentation(2:636)$ cd ..
+chet@odin [21:03:54] src(2:637)$
+.EE
+.LP
+The string being assigned is surrounded by single quotes so that if
+it is exported, the value of
+.B $SHLVL
+will be updated by a child shell:
+.SE
+chet@odin [21:17:35] src(2:638)$ export PS1
+chet@odin [21:17:40] src(2:639)$ bash
+chet@odin [21:17:46] src(3:696)$
+.EE
+.LP
+The \fP\e$\fP escape is displayed
+as \*Q\fB$\fP\*U when running as a normal user, but as \*Q\fB#\fP\*U when
+running as root.
+.NH 2
+File System Views
+.PP
+Since Berkeley introduced symbolic links in 4.2 BSD, one of their most
+annoying properties has been the \*Qwarping\*U to a completely
+different area of the file system when using
+.B cd ,
+and the resultant non-intuitive behavior of \*Q\fBcd ..\fP\*U.
+The \s-1UNIX\s+1 kernel treats symbolic links
+.I physically .
+When the kernel is translating a pathname
+in which one component is a symbolic link, it replaces all or part
+of the pathname while processing the link.  If the contents of the symbolic
+link begin with a slash, the kernel replaces the
+pathname entirely; if not, the link contents replace
+the current component.  In either case, the symbolic link
+is visible.  If the link value is an absolute pathname,
+the user finds himself in a completely different part of the file
+system.
+.PP
+Bash provides a
+.I logical
+view of the file system.  In this default mode, command and filename
+completion and builtin commands such as
+.B cd
+and
+.B pushd
+which change the current working directory transparently follow
+symbolic links as if they were directories.
+The
+.B $PWD
+variable, which holds the shell's idea of the current working directory,
+depends on the path used to reach the directory rather than its
+physical location in the local file system hierarchy.  For example:
+.SE
+$ cd /usr/local/bin
+$ echo $PWD
+/usr/local/bin
+$ pwd
+/usr/local/bin
+$ /bin/pwd
+/net/share/sun4/local/bin
+$ cd ..
+$ pwd
+/usr/local
+$ /bin/pwd
+/net/share/sun4/local
+$ cd ..
+$ pwd
+/usr
+$ /bin/pwd
+/usr
+.EE
+.LP
+One problem with this, of
+course, arises when programs that do not understand the shell's logical
+notion of the file system interpret \*Q..\*U differently.  This generally
+happens when Bash completes filenames containing \*Q..\*U according to a
+logical hierarchy which does not correspond to their physical location. 
+For users who find this troublesome, a corresponding
+.I physical
+view of the file system is available:
+.SE
+$ cd /usr/local/bin
+$ pwd
+/usr/local/bin
+$ set -o physical
+$ pwd
+/net/share/sun4/local/bin
+.EE
+.NH 2
+Internationalization
+.PP
+One of the most significant improvements in version 1.13 of Bash was the
+change to \*Qeight-bit cleanliness\*U.  Previous versions used the
+eighth bit of characters to mark whether or not they were
+quoted when performing word expansions.  While this did not affect
+the majority of users, most of whom used only seven-bit ASCII characters,
+some found it confining.  Beginning with version 1.13, Bash
+implemented a different quoting mechanism that did not alter the
+eighth bit of characters.  This allowed Bash
+to manipulate files with \*Qodd\*U characters in their names, but
+did nothing to help users enter those names, so
+version 1.13 introduced changes to readline that
+made it eight-bit clean as well.  Options exist that force readline to
+attach no special significance to characters with the eighth bit set
+(the default behavior is to convert these characters to meta-prefixed
+key sequences) and to output these characters without conversion to
+meta-prefixed sequences.  These changes, along with the expansion of
+keymaps to a full eight bits, enable readline to work with most of the
+ISO-8859 family of character sets, used by many European countries.
+.NH 2
+POSIX Mode
+.PP
+Although Bash is intended to be POSIX.2 conformant, there are areas in
+which the default behavior is not compatible with the standard.  For
+users who wish to operate in a strict POSIX.2 environment, Bash
+implements a \fIPOSIX mode\fP.  When this mode is active, Bash modifies
+its default operation where it differs from POSIX.2 to match the
+standard.  POSIX mode is entered when Bash is started with the
+.B -posix
+option.  This feature is also available as an option to the
+\fBset\fP builtin, \fBset -o posix\fP.
+For compatibility with other GNU software that attempts to be POSIX.2
+compliant, Bash also enters POSIX mode if the variable
+.B $POSIXLY_CORRECT
+is set when Bash is started or assigned a value during execution.
+.B $POSIX_PEDANTIC
+is accepted as well, to be compatible with some older GNU utilities.
+When Bash is started in POSIX mode, for example, it sources the
+file named by the value of 
+.B $ENV
+rather than the \*Qnormal\*U startup files, and does not allow
+reserved words to be aliased.
+.NH 1
+New Features and Future Plans
+.PP
+There are several features introduced in the current
+version of Bash, version 1.14, and a number under consideration
+for future releases.  This section will briefly detail the new
+features in version 1.14 and describe several features
+that may appear in later versions.
+.NH 2
+New Features in Bash-1.14
+.PP
+The new features available in Bash-1.14 answer several of
+the most common requests for enhancements.  Most notably, there
+is a mechanism
+for including non-visible character sequences in prompts, such as
+those which cause a terminal to print characters in different
+colors or in standout mode.  There was nothing preventing the use
+of these sequences in earlier
+versions, but the readline redisplay algorithm assumed each
+character occupied physical screen space and would wrap lines
+prematurely.
+.PP
+Readline has a few new
+variables, several new bindable commands, and some additional
+emacs mode default key bindings.  A new history search
+mode has been implemented: in this mode, readline searches the
+history for lines beginning with the characters between the
+beginning of the current line and the cursor.  The existing readline
+incremental search commands no longer match identical lines more
+than once.
+Filename completion now expands variables in directory names.
+The history expansion facilities are now nearly
+completely csh-compatible: missing modifiers have been added and
+history substitution has been extended.
+.PP
+Several of the features described earlier, such as
+.B "set -o posix"
+and
+.B $POSIX_PEDANTIC ,
+are new in version 1.14.
+There is a new shell variable,
+.B OSTYPE ,
+to which Bash assigns a value that identifies the
+version of \s-1UNIX\s+1 it's
+running on (great for putting architecture-specific binary directories
+into the \fB$PATH\fP).
+Two variables have been renamed:
+.B $HISTCONTROL
+replaces
+.B $history_control ,
+and
+.B $HOSTFILE
+replaces
+.B $hostname_completion_file .
+In both cases, the old names are accepted for backwards
+compatibility.  The ksh
+.I select
+construct, which allows the generation of simple menus,
+has been implemented.  New capabilities have been added
+to existing variables:
+.B $auto_resume
+can now take values of
+.I exact
+or
+.I substring ,
+and
+.B $HISTCONTROL
+understands the value
+.I ignoreboth ,
+which combines the two previously acceptable values.  The
+.B dirs
+builtin has acquired options to print out specific members of the
+directory stack.  The
+.B $nolinks
+variable, which forces a physical view of the file system,
+has been superseded by the
+.B \-P
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin (equivalent to \fBset -o physical\fP); the variable is retained
+for backwards compatibility.  The version string contained in
+.B $BASH_VERSION
+now includes an indication of the patch level as well as the
+\*Qbuild version\*U.
+Some little-used features have
+been removed:  the
+.B bye
+synonym for
+.B exit
+and the
+.B $NO_PROMPT_VARS
+variable are gone.  There is now an organized test suite that can be
+run as a regression test when building a new version of Bash.
+.PP
+The documentation has been thoroughly overhauled:
+there is a new manual page on the readline library and the \fIinfo\fP
+file has been updated to reflect the current version.
+As always, as many bugs as possible have been fixed, although some
+surely remain.
+.NH 2
+Other Features
+.PP
+There are a few features that I hope to include in later Bash releases.
+Some are based on work already done in other shells.
+.PP
+In addition to simple variables, a future release of Bash will include
+one-dimensional arrays, using the ksh
+implementation of arrays as a model.  Additions to the ksh syntax,
+such as \fIvarname\fP=( ... ) to assign a list of words directly to
+an array and a mechanism to allow
+the
+.B read
+builtin to read a list of values directly into an array, would be
+desirable.  Given those extensions, the ksh
+.B "set \-A"
+syntax may not be worth supporting (the
+.B \-A
+option assigns a list of values to an array, but is a rather
+peculiar special case).
+.PP
+Some shells include a means of \fIprogrammable\fP word
+completion, where the user specifies on a per-command basis how the
+arguments of the command are to be treated when completion is attempted:
+as filenames, hostnames, executable files, and so on.  The other
+aspects of the current Bash implementation could remain as-is; the
+existing heuristics would still be valid.  Only when completing the
+arguments to a simple command would the programmable completion be
+in effect.
+.PP
+It would also be nice to give the user finer-grained
+control over which commands are saved onto the history list.  One
+proposal is for a variable, tentatively named
+.B HISTIGNORE ,
+which would contain a colon-separated list of commands.  Lines beginning
+with these commands, after the restrictions of
+.B $HISTCONTROL
+have been applied, would not be placed onto the history list.  The
+shell pattern-matching capabilities could also be available when
+specifying the contents of
+.B $HISTIGNORE .
+.PP
+One thing that newer shells such as
+.B wksh
+(also known as
+.B dtksh )
+provide is a command to dynamically load code
+implementing additional builtin commands into a running shell.
+This new builtin would take an object file or shared library
+implementing the \*Qbody\*U of the
+builtin (\fIxxx_builtin()\fP for those familiar with Bash internals)
+and a structure containing the name of the new command, the function
+to call when the new builtin is invoked (presumably defined in the
+shared object specified as an argument), and the documentation to be
+printed by the
+.B help
+command (possibly present in the shared object as well).  It would
+manage the details of extending the internal table of builtins. 
+.PP
+A few other builtins would also be desirable: two are the POSIX.2
+.B getconf
+command, which prints the values of system configuration variables
+defined by POSIX.2, and a
+.B disown
+builtin, which causes a shell running
+with job control active to \*Qforget about\*U one or more
+background jobs in its internal jobs table.  Using
+.B getconf ,
+for example, a user could retrieve a value for
+.B $PATH
+guaranteed to find all of the POSIX standard utilities, or
+find out how long filenames may be in the file system containing
+a specified directory.
+.PP
+There are no implementation timetables for any of these features, nor
+are there concrete plans to include them.  If anyone has comments on
+these proposals, feel free to send me electronic mail.
+.NH 1
+Reflections and Lessons Learned
+.PP
+The lesson that has been repeated most often during Bash
+development is that there are dark corners in the Bourne shell,
+and people use all of them.  In the original description of the
+Bourne shell, quoting and the shell grammar are both poorly
+specified and incomplete; subsequent descriptions have not helped
+much.  The grammar presented in Bourne's paper describing
+the shell distributed with the Seventh Edition of \s-1UNIX\s+1\(dg
+is so far off that it does not allow the command \f(CWwho|wc\fP.
+In fact, as Tom Duff states:
+.QP
+Nobody really knows what the
+Bourne shell's grammar is.  Even examination of the source code is
+little help.\(dd
+.FS
+\(dgS. R. Bourne, \*QUNIX Time-Sharing System:  The UNIX Shell\*U,
+\fIBell System Technical Journal\fP, 57(6), July-August, 1978, pp. 1971-1990.
+.FE
+.FS
+\(ddTom Duff, \*QRc \- A Shell for Plan 9 and \s-1UNIX\s+1 systems\*U,
+\fIProc. of the Summer 1990 EUUG Conference\fP, London, July, 1990,
+pp. 21-33.
+.FE
+.LP
+The POSIX.2 standard includes a \fIyacc\fP grammar that comes close
+to capturing the Bourne shell's behavior, but it disallows some
+constructs which sh accepts without complaint \- and there are
+scripts out there that use them.  It took a few versions and
+several bug reports before Bash implemented sh-compatible quoting,
+and there are still some \*Qlegal\*U sh constructs which Bash flags as
+syntax errors.  Complete sh compatibility is a tough nut.
+.PP
+The shell is bigger and slower than I would like, though the current
+version is substantially faster than previously.  The readline library
+could stand a substantial rewrite.  A hand-written parser to replace
+the current \fIyacc\fP-generated one would probably result in a speedup,
+and would solve one glaring problem:  the shell could parse
+commands in \*Q$(...)\*U constructs
+as they are entered, rather than reporting errors when the construct
+is expanded.
+.PP
+As always, there is some chaff to go with the wheat.
+Areas of duplicated functionality need to be cleaned
+up.  There are several cases where Bash treats a variable specially to
+enable functionality available another way (\fB$notify\fP vs.
+\fBset -o notify\fP and \fB$nolinks\fP vs. \fBset -o physical\fP, for
+instance); the special treatment of the variable name should probably
+be removed.  A few more things could stand removal; the
+.B $allow_null_glob_expansion
+and
+.B $glob_dot_filenames
+variables are of particularly questionable value.
+The \fB$[...]\fP arithmetic evaluation syntax is redundant now that
+the POSIX-mandated \fB$((...))\fP construct has been implemented,
+and could be deleted.
+It would be nice if the text output by the
+.B help
+builtin were external to the shell rather than compiled into it.
+The behavior enabled by
+.B $command_oriented_history ,
+which causes the shell to attempt to save all lines of a multi-line
+command in a single history entry, should be made the default and
+the variable removed.
+.NH 1
+Availability
+.PP
+As with all other
+GNU software, Bash is available for anonymous FTP from
+.I prep.ai.mit.edu:/pub/gnu
+and from other GNU software mirror sites.  The current version is in
+.I bash-1.14.1.tar.gz
+in that directory.  Use
+.I archie
+to find the nearest archive site.  The
+latest version is always available for FTP from
+.I bash.CWRU.Edu:/pub/dist.
+Bash documentation is available for FTP from
+.I bash.CWRU.Edu:/pub/bash.
+.PP
+The Free Software Foundation sells tapes and CD-ROMs
+containing Bash; send electronic mail to
+\f(CRgnu@prep.ai.mit.edu\fP or call \f(CR+1-617-876-3296\fP
+for more information.
+.PP
+Bash is also distributed with several versions of \s-1UNIX\s+1-compatible
+systems.  It is included as /bin/sh and /bin/bash on several Linux
+distributions (more about the difference in a moment), and as contributed
+software in BSDI's BSD/386* and FreeBSD.
+.FS
+*BSD/386 is a trademark of Berkeley Software Design, Inc.
+.FE
+.PP
+The Linux distribution deserves special mention.  There are two
+configurations included in the standard Bash distribution: a
+\*Qnormal\*U configuration, in which all of the standard features
+are included, and a \*Qminimal\*U configuration, which omits job
+control, aliases, history and command line editing, the directory
+stack and
+.B pushd/popd/dirs,
+process substitution, prompt string special character decoding, and the
+.I select
+construct.  This minimal version is designed to be a drop-in replacement
+for the traditional \s-1UNIX\s+1 /bin/sh, and is included as the Linux
+/bin/sh in several packagings.
+.NH 1
+Conclusion
+.PP
+Bash is a worthy successor to sh.
+It is sufficiently portable
+to run on nearly every version of \s-1UNIX\s+1 from
+4.3 BSD to SVR4.2, and several \s-1UNIX\s+1 workalikes.
+It is robust enough to replace sh on most of those systems,
+and provides more functionality.  It has several thousand regular users,
+and their feedback has helped to make it as good as it is today \- a
+testament to the benefits of free software.
diff --git a/doc/article.ps b/doc/article.ps
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3aadf2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/article.ps
@@ -0,0 +1,1418 @@
+%!PS-Adobe-3.0
+%%Creator: groff version 1.16.1
+%%CreationDate: Mon Nov 19 13:06:55 2001
+%%DocumentNeededResources: font Times-Bold
+%%+ font Times-Italic
+%%+ font Times-Roman
+%%+ font Courier
+%%DocumentSuppliedResources: procset grops 1.16 1
+%%Pages: 11
+%%PageOrder: Ascend
+%%Orientation: Portrait
+%%EndComments
+%%BeginProlog
+%%BeginResource: procset grops 1.16 1
+/setpacking where{
+pop
+currentpacking
+true setpacking
+}if
+/grops 120 dict dup begin
+/SC 32 def
+/A/show load def
+/B{0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/C{0 exch ashow}bind def
+/D{0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/E{0 rmoveto show}bind def
+/F{0 rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/G{0 rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/H{0 rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/I{0 exch rmoveto show}bind def
+/J{0 exch rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/K{0 exch rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/L{0 exch rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/M{rmoveto show}bind def
+/N{rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/O{rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/P{rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/Q{moveto show}bind def
+/R{moveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/S{moveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/T{moveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/SF{
+findfont exch
+[exch dup 0 exch 0 exch neg 0 0]makefont
+dup setfont
+[exch/setfont cvx]cvx bind def
+}bind def
+/MF{
+findfont
+[5 2 roll
+0 3 1 roll
+neg 0 0]makefont
+dup setfont
+[exch/setfont cvx]cvx bind def
+}bind def
+/level0 0 def
+/RES 0 def
+/PL 0 def
+/LS 0 def
+/MANUAL{
+statusdict begin/manualfeed true store end
+}bind def
+/PLG{
+gsave newpath clippath pathbbox grestore
+exch pop add exch pop
+}bind def
+/BP{
+/level0 save def
+1 setlinecap
+1 setlinejoin
+72 RES div dup scale
+LS{
+90 rotate
+}{
+0 PL translate
+}ifelse
+1 -1 scale
+}bind def
+/EP{
+level0 restore
+showpage
+}bind def
+/DA{
+newpath arcn stroke
+}bind def
+/SN{
+transform
+.25 sub exch .25 sub exch
+round .25 add exch round .25 add exch
+itransform
+}bind def
+/DL{
+SN
+moveto
+SN
+lineto stroke
+}bind def
+/DC{
+newpath 0 360 arc closepath
+}bind def
+/TM matrix def
+/DE{
+TM currentmatrix pop
+translate scale newpath 0 0 .5 0 360 arc closepath
+TM setmatrix
+}bind def
+/RC/rcurveto load def
+/RL/rlineto load def
+/ST/stroke load def
+/MT/moveto load def
+/CL/closepath load def
+/FL{
+currentgray exch setgray fill setgray
+}bind def
+/BL/fill load def
+/LW/setlinewidth load def
+/RE{
+findfont
+dup maxlength 1 index/FontName known not{1 add}if dict begin
+{
+1 index/FID ne{def}{pop pop}ifelse
+}forall
+/Encoding exch def
+dup/FontName exch def
+currentdict end definefont pop
+}bind def
+/DEFS 0 def
+/EBEGIN{
+moveto
+DEFS begin
+}bind def
+/EEND/end load def
+/CNT 0 def
+/level1 0 def
+/PBEGIN{
+/level1 save def
+translate
+div 3 1 roll div exch scale
+neg exch neg exch translate
+0 setgray
+0 setlinecap
+1 setlinewidth
+0 setlinejoin
+10 setmiterlimit
+[]0 setdash
+/setstrokeadjust where{
+pop
+false setstrokeadjust
+}if
+/setoverprint where{
+pop
+false setoverprint
+}if
+newpath
+/CNT countdictstack def
+userdict begin
+/showpage{}def
+}bind def
+/PEND{
+clear
+countdictstack CNT sub{end}repeat
+level1 restore
+}bind def
+end def
+/setpacking where{
+pop
+setpacking
+}if
+%%EndResource
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Bold
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Italic
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Roman
+%%IncludeResource: font Courier
+grops begin/DEFS 1 dict def DEFS begin/u{.001 mul}bind def end/RES 72
+def/PL 792 def/LS false def/ENC0[/asciicircum/asciitilde/Scaron/Zcaron
+/scaron/zcaron/Ydieresis/trademark/quotesingle/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef
+/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef
+/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef
+/.notdef/.notdef/space/exclam/quotedbl/numbersign/dollar/percent
+/ampersand/quoteright/parenleft/parenright/asterisk/plus/comma/hyphen
+/period/slash/zero/one/two/three/four/five/six/seven/eight/nine/colon
+/semicolon/less/equal/greater/question/at/A/B/C/D/E/F/G/H/I/J/K/L/M/N/O
+/P/Q/R/S/T/U/V/W/X/Y/Z/bracketleft/backslash/bracketright/circumflex
+/underscore/quoteleft/a/b/c/d/e/f/g/h/i/j/k/l/m/n/o/p/q/r/s/t/u/v/w/x/y
+/z/braceleft/bar/braceright/tilde/.notdef/quotesinglbase/guillemotleft
+/guillemotright/bullet/florin/fraction/perthousand/dagger/daggerdbl
+/endash/emdash/ff/fi/fl/ffi/ffl/dotlessi/dotlessj/grave/hungarumlaut
+/dotaccent/breve/caron/ring/ogonek/quotedblleft/quotedblright/oe/lslash
+/quotedblbase/OE/Lslash/.notdef/exclamdown/cent/sterling/currency/yen
+/brokenbar/section/dieresis/copyright/ordfeminine/guilsinglleft
+/logicalnot/minus/registered/macron/degree/plusminus/twosuperior
+/threesuperior/acute/mu/paragraph/periodcentered/cedilla/onesuperior
+/ordmasculine/guilsinglright/onequarter/onehalf/threequarters
+/questiondown/Agrave/Aacute/Acircumflex/Atilde/Adieresis/Aring/AE
+/Ccedilla/Egrave/Eacute/Ecircumflex/Edieresis/Igrave/Iacute/Icircumflex
+/Idieresis/Eth/Ntilde/Ograve/Oacute/Ocircumflex/Otilde/Odieresis
+/multiply/Oslash/Ugrave/Uacute/Ucircumflex/Udieresis/Yacute/Thorn
+/germandbls/agrave/aacute/acircumflex/atilde/adieresis/aring/ae/ccedilla
+/egrave/eacute/ecircumflex/edieresis/igrave/iacute/icircumflex/idieresis
+/eth/ntilde/ograve/oacute/ocircumflex/otilde/odieresis/divide/oslash
+/ugrave/uacute/ucircumflex/udieresis/yacute/thorn/ydieresis]def
+/Courier@0 ENC0/Courier RE/Times-Roman@0 ENC0/Times-Roman RE
+/Times-Italic@0 ENC0/Times-Italic RE/Times-Bold@0 ENC0/Times-Bold RE
+%%EndProlog
+%%Page: 1 1
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 12/Times-Bold@0 SF(Bash \255 The GNU shell*)227.904 123 Q/F1 10
+/Times-Italic@0 SF(Chet Rame)263.85 147 Q(y)-.3 E(Case W)221.72 159 Q
+(estern Reserve Univer)-.92 E(sity)-.1 E -.15(ch)250.425 171 S
+(et@po.cwru.edu).15 E/F2 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(1. Intr)72 207 R
+(oduction)-.18 E(Bash)97 222.6 Q/F3 10/Times-Roman@0 SF .904
+(is the shell, or command language interpreter)3.404 F 3.404(,t)-.4 G
+.904(hat will appear in the GNU operating system.)-3.404 F 1.075
+(The name is an acron)72 234.6 R 1.075(ym for the \231Bourne-Ag)-.15 F
+1.075(ain SHell\232, a pun on Ste)-.05 F 1.375 -.15(ve B)-.25 H 1.075
+(ourne, the author of the direct).15 F .206(ancestor of the current)72
+246.6 R/F4 8/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)2.706 E F3 2.706<ae73>C(hell)-2.706 E
+F1(/bin/sh)2.706 E F3 2.706(,w)C .205(hich appeared in the Se)-2.706 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .205(nth Edition Bell Labs Research v).15 F(er)-.15 E(-)
+-.2 E(sion of)72 258.6 Q/F5 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)2.5 E F3(.)A .387
+(Bash is an)97 274.2 R F2(sh)2.887 E F3 .387
+(\255compatible shell that incorporates useful features from the K)B
+.388(orn shell \()-.35 F F2(ksh)A F3 2.888(\)a)C .388(nd the C)-2.888 F
+.023(shell \()72 286.2 R F2(csh)A F3 .023
+(\), described later in this article.)B .022
+(It is ultimately intended to be a conformant implementation of the)
+5.022 F 3.568(IEEE POSIX Shell and Utilities speci\214cation \(IEEE W)72
+298.2 R 3.568(orking Group 1003.2\).)-.8 F 3.569(It of)8.569 F 3.569
+(fers functional)-.25 F(impro)72 310.2 Q -.15(ve)-.15 G(ments o).15 E
+-.15(ve)-.15 G 2.5(rs).15 G 2.5(hf)-2.5 G(or both interacti)-2.5 E .3
+-.15(ve a)-.25 H(nd programming use.).15 E .697
+(While the GNU operating system will most lik)97 325.8 R .697
+(ely include a v)-.1 F .697(ersion of the Berk)-.15 F(ele)-.1 E 3.197
+(ys)-.15 G .696(hell csh, Bash)-3.197 F .015(will be the def)72 337.8 R
+.015(ault shell.)-.1 F(Lik)5.015 E 2.515(eo)-.1 G .015(ther GNU softw)
+-2.515 F .016(are, Bash is quite portable.)-.1 F .016
+(It currently runs on nearly e)5.016 F -.15(ve)-.25 G(ry).15 E -.15(ve)
+72 349.8 S .523(rsion of).15 F F4(UNIX)3.023 E F3 .523(and a fe)3.023 F
+3.023(wo)-.25 G .523
+(ther operating systems \255 an independently-supported port e)-3.023 F
+.523(xists for OS/2, and)-.15 F .706
+(there are rumors of ports to DOS and W)72 361.8 R(indo)-.4 E .706
+(ws NT)-.25 F 5.706(.P)-.74 G .706(orts to)-5.706 F F5(UNIX)3.206 E F3
+(-lik)A 3.206(es)-.1 G .706(ystems such as QNX and Minix)-3.206 F
+(are part of the distrib)72 373.8 Q(ution.)-.2 E .405
+(The original author of Bash w)97 389.4 R .405(as Brian F)-.1 F .405
+(ox, an emplo)-.15 F .405(yee of the Free Softw)-.1 F .405(are F)-.1 F
+2.905(oundation. The)-.15 F(cur)2.905 E(-)-.2 E(rent de)72 401.4 Q -.15
+(ve)-.25 G(loper and maintainer is Chet Rame).15 E 1.3 -.65(y, a v)-.15
+H(olunteer who w).45 E(orks at Case W)-.1 E(estern Reserv)-.8 E 2.5(eU)
+-.15 G(ni)-2.5 E -.15(ve)-.25 G(rsity).15 E(.)-.65 E F2 2.5(2. What')72
+425.4 R 2.5(sP)-.37 G(OSIX, anyway?)-2.5 E F1(POSIX)97 441 Q F3 .343
+(is a name originally coined by Richard Stallman for a f)2.843 F .343
+(amily of open system standards based)-.1 F(on)72 453 Q F5(UNIX)3.24 E
+F3 5.74(.T)C .74(here are a number of aspects of)-5.74 F F5(UNIX)3.24 E
+F3 .74(under consideration for standardization, from the basic)3.24 F
+.192(system services at the system call and C library le)72 465 R -.15
+(ve)-.25 G 2.692(lt).15 G 2.692(oa)-2.692 G .192
+(pplications and tools to system administration and)-2.692 F 2.5
+(management. Each)72 477 R(area of standardization is assigned to a w)
+2.5 E(orking group in the 1003 series.)-.1 E 2.814
+(The POSIX Shell and Utilities standard has been de)97 492.6 R -.15(ve)
+-.25 G 2.814(loped by IEEE W).15 F 2.813(orking Group 1003.2)-.8 F .254
+(\(POSIX.2\).\210 It concentrates on the command interpreter interf)72
+504.6 R .253(ace and utility programs commonly e)-.1 F -.15(xe)-.15 G
+(cuted).15 E 1.112(from the command line or by other programs.)72 516.6
+R 1.112(An initial v)6.112 F 1.113
+(ersion of the standard has been appro)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 3.613(da)
+.15 G(nd)-3.613 E .365(published by the IEEE, and w)72 528.6 R .365
+(ork is currently underw)-.1 F .365(ay to update it.)-.1 F .365
+(There are four primary areas of w)5.365 F(ork)-.1 E
+(in the 1003.2 standard:)72 540.6 Q 21.5<8341>72 556.2 S .835
+(spects of the shell')-21.5 F 3.335(ss)-.55 G .835
+(yntax and command language.)-3.335 F 3.335(An)5.835 G .835
+(umber of special b)-3.335 F .835(uiltins such as)-.2 F F2(cd)3.335 E F3
+(and)3.335 E F2(exec)97 568.2 Q F3 .545(are being speci\214ed as part o\
+f the shell, since their functionality usually cannot be implemented)
+3.046 F(by a separate e)97 580.2 Q -.15(xe)-.15 G(cutable;).15 E 21.5
+<8341>72 595.8 S .926
+(set of utilities to be called by shell scripts and applications.)
+-18.074 F .927(Examples are programs lik)5.927 F(e)-.1 E F1 .927
+(sed, tr)3.427 F(,)-1.11 E F3(and)97 607.8 Q F1(awk.)2.797 E F3 .297
+(Utilities commonly implemented as shell b)5.297 F .296
+(uiltins are described in this section, such as)-.2 F F2(test)2.796 E F3
+(and)97 619.8 Q F2(kill)3.422 E F3 5.922(.A)C 3.422(ne)-5.922 G .922
+(xpansion of this section')-3.572 F 3.423(ss)-.55 G .923
+(cope, termed the User Portability Extension, or UPE, has)-3.423 F
+(standardized interacti)97 631.8 Q .3 -.15(ve p)-.25 H(rograms such as)
+.15 E F1(vi)2.5 E F3(and)2.5 E F1(mailx;)2.5 E F3 21.5<8341>72 647.4 S
+.288(group of functional interf)-18.712 F .287(aces to services pro)-.1
+F .287(vided by the shell, such as the traditional)-.15 F/F6 10
+/Courier@0 SF(system\(\))2.787 E F3 3.289(Cl)97 659.4 S .789
+(ibrary function.)-3.289 F .789(There are functions to perform shell w)
+5.789 F .789(ord e)-.1 F .79(xpansions, perform \214lename e)-.15 F
+(xpan-)-.15 E .324(sion \()97 671.4 R F1(globbing)A F3 .324
+(\), obtain v)B .323(alues of POSIX.2 system con\214guration v)-.25 F
+.323(ariables, retrie)-.25 F .623 -.15(ve v)-.25 H .323(alues of en)-.1
+F(viron-)-.4 E(ment v)97 683.4 Q(ariables \()-.25 E F6(getenv\(\))A F3
+(\), and other services;).833 E .32 LW 144 691.4 72 691.4 DL F4
+(*An earlier v)72 703.2 Q
+(ersion of this article appeared in The Linux Journal.)-.12 E(\210IEEE,)
+72 715 Q/F7 8/Times-Italic@0 SF 1.231(IEEE Standar)3.231 F 3.231(df)
+-.296 G 1.231(or Information T)-3.231 F(ec)-.736 E(hnolo)-.12 E 1.231
+(gy -- P)-.08 F 1.231(ortable Oper)-.64 F 1.232
+(ating System Interface \(POSIX\) P)-.12 F 1.232(art 2:)-.64 F
+(Shell and Utilities)72 725 Q F4 2(,1)C(992.)-2 E EP
+%%Page: 2 2
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-2-)282.17 48 Q 21.5<8341>72 84 S
+(suite of \231de)-19 E -.15(ve)-.25 G(lopment\232 utilities such as).15
+E/F1 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(c89)2.5 E F0(\(the POSIX.2 v)2.5 E(ersion of)
+-.15 E F1(cc)2.5 E F0(\), and)A F1(yacc.)2.5 E F0 .483
+(Bash is concerned with the aspects of the shell')97 99.6 R 2.983(sb)
+-.55 G(eha)-2.983 E .484(vior de\214ned by POSIX.2.)-.2 F .484
+(The shell command)5.484 F 1.439
+(language has of course been standardized, including the basic \215o)72
+111.6 R 3.938(wc)-.25 G 1.438(ontrol and program e)-3.938 F -.15(xe)-.15
+G 1.438(cution con-).15 F 1.284
+(structs, I/O redirection and pipelining, ar)72 123.6 R 1.284
+(gument handling, v)-.18 F 1.284(ariable e)-.25 F 1.284
+(xpansion, and quoting.)-.15 F(The)6.285 E F1(special)3.785 E F0 -.2(bu)
+72 135.6 S .676
+(iltins, which must be implemented as part of the shell to pro).2 F .676
+(vide the desired functionality)-.15 F 3.176(,a)-.65 G .676
+(re speci\214ed)-3.176 F .7(as being part of the shell; e)72 147.6 R .7
+(xamples of these are)-.15 F/F2 10/Times-Bold@0 SF -2.3 -.15(ev a)3.201
+H(l).15 E F0(and)3.201 E F2(export)3.201 E F0 5.701(.O)C .701
+(ther utilities appear in the sections of)-5.701 F .256(POSIX.2 not de)
+72 159.6 R -.2(vo)-.25 G .256(ted to the shell which are commonly \(and\
+ in some cases must be\) implemented as b).2 F(uiltin)-.2 E .213
+(commands, such as)72 171.6 R F2 -.18(re)2.713 G(ad).18 E F0(and)2.713 E
+F2(test)2.713 E F0 5.213(.P)C .213
+(OSIX.2 also speci\214es aspects of the shell')-5.213 F 2.713(si)-.55 G
+(nteracti)-2.713 E .513 -.15(ve b)-.25 H(eha).15 E .214(vior as part)-.2
+F .598(of the UPE, including job control and command line editing.)72
+183.6 R .598(Interestingly enough, only)5.598 F F1(vi)3.098 E F0 .598
+(-style line edit-)B(ing commands ha)72 195.6 Q .3 -.15(ve b)-.2 H
+(een standardized;).15 E F1(emacs)2.5 E F0
+(editing commands were left out due to objections.)2.5 E 1.128
+(While POSIX.2 includes much of what the shell has traditionally pro)97
+211.2 R 1.129(vided, some important things)-.15 F(ha)72 223.2 Q .344
+-.15(ve b)-.2 H .044(een omitted as being \231be).15 F .044
+(yond its scope.)-.15 F 5.043<9a54>-.7 G .043
+(here is, for instance, no mention of a dif)-5.043 F .043
+(ference between a)-.25 F F1(lo)72 235.2 Q(gin)-.1 E F0 1.445
+(shell and an)3.945 F 3.945(yo)-.15 G 1.445(ther interacti)-3.945 F
+1.745 -.15(ve s)-.25 H 1.446
+(hell \(since POSIX.2 does not specify a login program\).).15 F 1.446
+(No \214x)6.446 F(ed)-.15 E(startup \214les are de\214ned, either \255 \
+the standard does not mention)72 247.2 Q F1(.pr)2.5 E(o\214le)-.45 E F0
+(.)A F2 2.5(3. Basic)72 271.2 R(Bash featur)2.5 E(es)-.18 E F0 1.448
+(Since the Bourne shell pro)97 286.8 R 1.448
+(vides Bash with most of its philosophical underpinnings, Bash inherits)
+-.15 F .64(most of its features and functionality from sh.)72 298.8 R
+.641(Bash implements all of the traditional sh \215o)5.641 F 3.141(wc)
+-.25 G .641(ontrol con-)-3.141 F .8(structs \()72 310.8 R F1(for)A F0(,)
+A F1(if)3.3 E F0(,)A F1(while)3.3 E F0 3.3(,e)C 3.3(tc.\). All)-3.3 F
+.799(of the Bourne shell b)3.3 F .799
+(uiltins, including those not speci\214ed in the POSIX.2)-.2 F .536
+(standard, appear in Bash.)72 322.8 R(Shell)5.536 E F1(functions)3.036 E
+F0 3.036(,i)C .536(ntroduced in the SVR2 v)-3.036 F .537
+(ersion of the Bourne shell, are similar)-.15 F .779
+(to shell scripts, b)72 334.8 R .779
+(ut are de\214ned using a special syntax and are e)-.2 F -.15(xe)-.15 G
+.779(cuted in the same process as the calling).15 F 2.841(shell. Bash)72
+346.8 R .341(has shell functions which beha)2.841 F .641 -.15(ve i)-.2 H
+2.841(naf).15 G .341(ashion upw)-2.941 F .342
+(ard-compatible with sh functions.)-.1 F .342(There are)5.342 F 1.447
+(certain shell v)72 358.8 R 1.446
+(ariables that Bash interprets in the same w)-.25 F 1.446
+(ay as sh, such as)-.1 F F2(PS1)3.946 E F0(,)A F2(IFS)3.946 E F0 3.946
+(,a)C(nd)-3.946 E F2 -.74(PA)3.946 G(TH)-.21 E F0 6.446(.B)C(ash)-6.446
+E 1.423(implements essentially the same grammar)72 370.8 R 3.924(,p)-.4
+G 1.424(arameter and v)-3.924 F 1.424(ariable e)-.25 F 1.424
+(xpansion semantics, redirection, and)-.15 F 1.06
+(quoting as the Bourne shell.)72 382.8 R 1.06(Where dif)6.06 F 1.06
+(ferences appear between the POSIX.2 standard and traditional sh)-.25 F
+(beha)72 394.8 Q(vior)-.2 E 2.5(,B)-.4 G(ash follo)-2.5 E(ws POSIX.)-.25
+E 1.608(The K)97 410.4 R 1.608(orn Shell \()-.35 F F2(ksh)A F0 4.108
+(\)i)C 4.108(sad)-4.108 G 1.608
+(escendent of the Bourne shell written at A)-4.108 F 1.609
+(T&T Bell Laboratories by)-1.11 F(Da)72 422.4 Q 1.059(vid K)-.2 F 3.559
+(orn\207. It)-.35 F(pro)3.559 E 1.059
+(vides a number of useful features that POSIX and Bash ha)-.15 F 1.359
+-.15(ve a)-.2 H 3.558(dopted. Man).15 F 3.558(yo)-.15 G 3.558(ft)-3.558
+G(he)-3.558 E(interacti)72 434.4 Q 1.312 -.15(ve f)-.25 H 1.012
+(acilities in POSIX.2 ha).05 F 1.312 -.15(ve t)-.2 H 1.012
+(heir roots in the ksh: for e).15 F 1.013
+(xample, the POSIX and ksh job control)-.15 F -.1(fa)72 446.4 S .513
+(cilities are nearly identical. Bash includes features from the K).1 F
+.513(orn Shell for both interacti)-.35 F .813 -.15(ve u)-.25 H .513
+(se and shell).15 F 3.905(programming. F)72 458.4 R 1.405
+(or programming, Bash pro)-.15 F 1.405(vides v)-.15 F 1.405
+(ariables such as)-.25 F F2(RANDOM)3.905 E F0(and)3.905 E F2(REPL)3.905
+E(Y)-.92 E F0 3.905(,t)C(he)-3.905 E F2(typeset)3.905 E F0 -.2(bu)72
+470.4 S .398(iltin, the ability to remo).2 F .698 -.15(ve s)-.15 H .398
+(ubstrings from v).15 F .398
+(ariables based on patterns, and shell arithmetic.)-.25 F F2(RANDOM)
+5.397 E F0 -.15(ex)72 482.4 S .489
+(pands to a random number each time it is referenced; assigning a v).15
+F .49(alue to)-.25 F F2(RANDOM)2.99 E F0 .49(seeds the random)2.99 F
+.055(number generator)72 494.4 R(.)-.55 E F2(REPL)5.055 E(Y)-.92 E F0
+.054(is the def)2.554 F .054(ault v)-.1 F .054(ariable used by the)-.25
+F F2 -.18(re)2.554 G(ad).18 E F0 -.2(bu)2.554 G .054(iltin when no v).2
+F .054(ariable names are sup-)-.25 F .742(plied as ar)72 506.4 R 3.243
+(guments. The)-.18 F F2(typeset)3.243 E F0 -.2(bu)3.243 G .743
+(iltin is used to de\214ne v).2 F .743(ariables and gi)-.25 F 1.043 -.15
+(ve t)-.25 H .743(hem attrib).15 F .743(utes such as)-.2 F F2 -.18(re)
+3.243 G(ad-).18 E(only)72 518.4 Q F0 5.512(.B)C .512
+(ash arithmetic allo)-5.512 F .512(ws the e)-.25 F -.25(va)-.25 G .511
+(luation of an e).25 F .511
+(xpression and the substitution of the result.)-.15 F .511(Shell v)5.511
+F(ari-)-.25 E .222
+(ables may be used as operands, and the result of an e)72 530.4 R .222
+(xpression may be assigned to a v)-.15 F 2.722(ariable. Nearly)-.25 F
+.222(all of)2.722 F(the operators from the C language are a)72 542.4 Q
+-.25(va)-.2 G(ilable, with the same precedence rules:).25 E/F3 10
+/Courier@0 SF 6($e)97 560.4 S(cho $\(\(3 + 5 * 32\)\))-6 E(163)97 572.4
+Q F0 -.15(Fo)72 594 S 3.24(ri).15 G(nteracti)-3.24 E 1.04 -.15(ve u)-.25
+H .74(se, Bash implements ksh-style aliases and b).15 F .74
+(uiltins such as)-.2 F F2(fc)3.24 E F0 .74(\(discussed belo)3.24 F .74
+(w\) and)-.25 F F2(jobs)3.24 E F0(.)A .291(Bash aliases allo)72 606 R
+2.791(was)-.25 G .291(tring to be substituted for a command name.)-2.791
+F(The)5.291 E 2.791(yc)-.15 G .291(an be used to create a mnemonic)
+-2.791 F .568(for a)72 618 R/F4 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)3.068 E F0 .568
+(command name \()3.068 F F3 .568(alias del=rm)B F0 .568(\), to e)B .567
+(xpand a single w)-.15 F .567(ord to a comple)-.1 F 3.067(xc)-.15 G .567
+(ommand \()-3.067 F F3(alias)A .255
+(news='xterm -g 80x45 -title trn -e trn -e -S1 -N &')72 630 R F0 .255
+(\), or to ensure that a command)B(is in)72 642 Q -.2(vo)-.4 G -.1(ke).2
+G 2.5(dw).1 G(ith a basic set of options \()-2.5 E F3
+(alias ls="/bin/ls -F")A F0(\).)A .293(The C shell \()97 657.6 R F2(csh)
+A F0 .293(\)\207, originally written by Bill Jo)B 2.792(yw)-.1 G .292
+(hile at Berk)-2.792 F(ele)-.1 E 1.592 -.65(y, i)-.15 H 2.792(sw).65 G
+.292(idely used and quite popular)-2.792 F 1.499(for its interacti)72
+669.6 R 1.799 -.15(ve f)-.25 H 3.999(acilities. Bash).05 F 1.499
+(includes a csh-compatible history e)3.999 F 1.5
+(xpansion mechanism \(\231! history\232\),)-.15 F .019(brace e)72 681.6
+R .018(xpansion, access to a stack of directories via the)-.15 F F2
+(pushd)2.518 E F0(,)A F2(popd)2.518 E F0 2.518(,a)C(nd)-2.518 E F2(dirs)
+2.518 E F0 -.2(bu)2.518 G .018(iltins, and tilde e).2 F(xpansion,)-.15 E
+1.293(to generate users' home directories.)72 693.6 R -.35(Ti)6.294 G
+1.294(lde e).35 F 1.294(xpansion has also been adopted by both the K)
+-.15 F 1.294(orn Shell and)-.35 F .32 LW 144 708.2 72 708.2 DL/F5 8
+/Times-Roman@0 SF(\207Morris Bolsk)72 720 Q 2(ya)-.12 G(nd Da)-2 E
+(vid K)-.16 E(orn,)-.28 E/F6 8/Times-Italic@0 SF(The K)2 E
+(ornShell Command and Pr)-.32 E -.08(og)-.36 G -.12(ra).08 G
+(mming Langua).12 E -.08(ge)-.08 G F5 2(,P).08 G(rentice Hall, 1989.)-2
+E EP
+%%Page: 3 3
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-3-)282.17 48 Q(POSIX.2.)72 84 Q .148
+(There were certain areas in which POSIX.2 felt standardization w)97
+99.6 R .149(as necessary)-.1 F 2.649(,b)-.65 G .149(ut no e)-2.849 F
+.149(xisting imple-)-.15 F 1.598(mentation pro)72 111.6 R 1.598
+(vided the proper beha)-.15 F(vior)-.2 E 6.598(.T)-.55 G 1.598(he w)
+-6.598 F 1.597(orking group in)-.1 F -.15(ve)-.4 G 1.597
+(nted and standardized functionality in).15 F .674
+(these areas, which Bash implements.)72 123.6 R(The)5.674 E/F1 10
+/Times-Bold@0 SF(command)3.174 E F0 -.2(bu)3.174 G .674(iltin w).2 F
+.674(as in)-.1 F -.15(ve)-.4 G .674
+(nted so that shell functions could be).15 F .996(written to replace b)
+72 135.6 R .996(uiltins; it mak)-.2 F .996(es the capabilities of the b)
+-.1 F .995(uiltin a)-.2 F -.25(va)-.2 G .995(ilable to the function.).25
+F .995(The reserv)5.995 F(ed)-.15 E -.1(wo)72 147.6 S 1.731
+(rd \231!\232 w).1 F 1.731(as added to ne)-.1 F -.05(ga)-.15 G 1.731
+(te the return v).05 F 1.731(alue of a command or pipeline; it w)-.25 F
+1.732(as nearly impossible to)-.1 F -.15(ex)72 159.6 S .286
+(press \231if not x\232 cleanly using the sh language.).15 F .286
+(There e)5.286 F .286(xist multiple incompatible implementations of the)
+-.15 F F1(test)72 171.6 Q F0 -.2(bu)3.163 G .663
+(iltin, which tests \214les for type and other attrib).2 F .664
+(utes and performs arithmetic and string comparisons.)-.2 F .5
+(POSIX considered none of these correct, so the standard beha)72 183.6 R
+.5(vior w)-.2 F .5(as speci\214ed in terms of the number of)-.1 F(ar)72
+195.6 Q .412(guments to the command.)-.18 F .412(POSIX.2 dictates e)
+5.412 F .412(xactly what will happen when four or fe)-.15 F .412(wer ar)
+-.25 F .412(guments are)-.18 F(gi)72 207.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G 5.01(nt).15
+G(o)-5.01 E F1(test)5.01 E F0 5.01(,a)C 2.51(nd lea)-5.01 F -.15(ve)-.2
+G 5.01(st).15 G 2.51(he beha)-5.01 F 2.51(vior unde\214ned when more ar)
+-.2 F 2.51(guments are supplied.)-.18 F 2.51(Bash uses the)7.51 F
+(POSIX.2 algorithm, which w)72 219.6 Q(as concei)-.1 E -.15(ve)-.25 G
+2.5(db).15 G 2.5(yD)-2.5 G -.2(av)-2.5 G(id K).2 E(orn.)-.35 E F1 2.5
+(3.1. F)72 243.6 R(eatur)-.25 E(es not in the Bour)-.18 E(ne Shell)-.15
+E F0 .718(There are a number of minor dif)97 259.2 R .719
+(ferences between Bash and the v)-.25 F .719
+(ersion of sh present on most other)-.15 F -.15(ve)72 271.2 S .874
+(rsions of).15 F/F2 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)3.374 E F0 5.873(.T)C .873
+(he majority of these are due to the POSIX standard, b)-5.873 F .873
+(ut some are the result of Bash)-.2 F .386
+(adopting features from other shells.)72 283.2 R -.15(Fo)5.386 G 2.886
+(ri).15 G .386(nstance, Bash includes the ne)-2.886 F 2.886<7799>-.25 G
+.386(!\232 reserv)-2.886 F .386(ed w)-.15 F .386(ord, the)-.1 F F1
+(command)2.886 E F0 -.2(bu)72 295.2 S .116(iltin, the ability of the).2
+F F1 -.18(re)2.616 G(ad).18 E F0 -.2(bu)2.615 G .115
+(iltin to correctly return a line ending with a backslash, symbolic ar)
+.2 F(guments)-.18 E .798(to the)72 307.2 R F1(umask)3.298 E F0 -.2(bu)
+3.298 G .798(iltin, v).2 F .798(ariable substring remo)-.25 F -.25(va)
+-.15 G .798(l, a w).25 F .799(ay to get the length of a v)-.1 F .799
+(ariable, and the ne)-.25 F 3.299(wa)-.25 G(lgo-)-3.299 E(rithm for the)
+72 319.2 Q F1(test)2.5 E F0 -.2(bu)2.5 G
+(iltin from the POSIX.2 standard, none of which appear in sh.).2 E 1.225
+(Bash also implements the \231$\(...\)\232 command substitution syntax,\
+ which supersedes the sh `...` con-)97 334.8 R 2.851(struct. The)72
+346.8 R .351(\231$\(...\)\232 construct e)2.851 F .351(xpands to the ou\
+tput of the command contained within the parentheses, with)-.15 F .664
+(trailing ne)72 358.8 R .664(wlines remo)-.25 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 3.164
+(d. The).15 F .664(sh syntax is accepted for backw)3.164 F .664
+(ards compatibility)-.1 F 3.164(,b)-.65 G .664
+(ut the \231$\(...\)\232 form is)-3.364 F(preferred because its quoting\
+ rules are much simpler and it is easier to nest.)72 370.8 Q .772
+(The Bourne shell does not pro)97 386.4 R .772
+(vide such features as brace e)-.15 F .772
+(xpansion, the ability to de\214ne a v)-.15 F(ariable)-.25 E .283
+(and a function with the same name, local v)72 398.4 R .282
+(ariables in shell functions, the ability to enable and disable indi-)
+-.25 F .547(vidual b)72 410.4 R .547
+(uiltins or write a function to replace a b)-.2 F .547
+(uiltin, or a means to e)-.2 F .547
+(xport a shell function to a child pro-)-.15 F(cess.)72 422.4 Q .32
+(Bash has closed a long-standing shell security hole by not using the)97
+438 R F1($IFS)2.82 E F0 -.25(va)2.82 G .32(riable to split each w).25 F
+(ord)-.1 E 1.254(read by the shell, b)72 450 R 1.254
+(ut splitting only the results of e)-.2 F 1.255
+(xpansion \(ksh and the 4.4 BSD sh ha)-.15 F 1.555 -.15(ve \214)-.2 H
+-.15(xe).15 G 3.755(dt).15 G 1.255(his as)-3.755 F 2.907(well\). Useful)
+72 462 R(beha)2.907 E .407(vior such as a means to abort e)-.2 F -.15
+(xe)-.15 G .407(cution of a script read with the \231.).15 F 2.906<9a63>
+-.7 G .406(ommand using the)-2.906 F F1 -.18(re)72 474 S(tur).18 E(n)
+-.15 E F0 -.2(bu)2.742 G .242(iltin or automatically e).2 F .242
+(xporting v)-.15 F .243(ariables in the shell')-.25 F 2.743(se)-.55 G
+-.4(nv)-2.743 G .243(ironment to children is also not present).4 F .969
+(in the Bourne shell.)72 486 R .968(Bash pro)5.968 F .968
+(vides a much more po)-.15 F .968(werful en)-.25 F .968
+(vironment for both interacti)-.4 F 1.268 -.15(ve u)-.25 H .968
+(se and pro-).15 F(gramming.)72 498 Q F1 2.5(4. Bash-speci\214c)72 522 R
+-.25(Fe)2.5 G(atur).25 E(es)-.18 E F0 .491(This section details a fe)97
+537.6 R 2.991(wo)-.25 G 2.991(ft)-2.991 G .491(he features which mak)
+-2.991 F 2.991(eB)-.1 G .491(ash unique.)-2.991 F .492(Most of them pro)
+5.491 F .492(vide impro)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G(d).15 E(interacti)72 549.6
+Q 1.182 -.15(ve u)-.25 H .882(se, b).15 F .882(ut a fe)-.2 F 3.382(wp)
+-.25 G .882(rogramming impro)-3.382 F -.15(ve)-.15 G .882
+(ments are present as well.).15 F .882(Full descriptions of these fea-)
+5.882 F(tures can be found in the Bash documentation.)72 561.6 Q F1 2.5
+(4.1. Startup)72 585.6 R(Files)2.5 E F0 .161(Bash e)97 601.2 R -.15(xe)
+-.15 G .161(cutes startup \214les dif).15 F .161
+(ferently than other shells.)-.25 F .162(The Bash beha)5.161 F .162
+(vior is a compromise between)-.2 F .29
+(the csh principle of startup \214les with \214x)72 613.2 R .29
+(ed names e)-.15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .29
+(cuted for each shell and the sh \231minimalist\232 beha).15 F(vior)-.2
+E(.)-.55 E 2.955(An interacti)72 625.2 R 3.255 -.15(ve i)-.25 H 2.955
+(nstance of Bash started as a login shell reads and e).15 F -.15(xe)-.15
+G(cutes).15 E/F3 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(~/.bash_pr)5.456 E(o\214le)-.45 E
+F0 2.956(\(the \214le)5.456 F .954(.bash_pro\214le in the user')72 637.2
+R 3.454(sh)-.55 G .953(ome directory\), if it e)-3.454 F 3.453
+(xists. An)-.15 F(interacti)3.453 E 1.253 -.15(ve n)-.25 H .953
+(on-login shell reads and e).15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G(cutes).15 E F3
+(~/.bashr)72 649.2 Q(c)-.37 E F0 5.641(.A)C(non-interacti)-2.5 E .942
+-.15(ve s)-.25 H .642(hell \(one be).15 F .642(gun to e)-.15 F -.15(xe)
+-.15 G .642(cute a shell script, for e).15 F .642
+(xample\) reads no \214x)-.15 F .642(ed startup)-.15 F .342(\214le, b)72
+661.2 R .342(ut uses the v)-.2 F .342(alue of the v)-.25 F(ariable)-.25
+E F1($ENV)2.842 E F0 2.841(,i)C 2.841(fs)-2.841 G .341
+(et, as the name of a startup \214le.)-2.841 F .341
+(The ksh practice of read-)5.341 F(ing)72 673.2 Q F1($ENV)3.114 E F0
+.614(for e)3.114 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .614(ry shell, with the accompan).15 F
+.615(ying dif)-.15 F .615(\214culty of de\214ning the proper v)-.25 F
+.615(ariables and functions)-.25 F .721(for interacti)72 685.2 R 1.021
+-.15(ve a)-.25 H .721(nd non-interacti).15 F 1.021 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .721
+(hells or ha).15 F .721(ving the \214le read only for interacti)-.2 F
+1.02 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .72(hells, w).15 F .72(as considered)-.1 F .158
+(too comple)72 697.2 R 2.658(x. Ease)-.15 F .158(of use w)2.658 F .158
+(on out here.)-.1 F(Interestingly)5.158 E 2.658(,t)-.65 G .158(he ne)
+-2.658 F .159(xt release of ksh will change to reading)-.15 F F1($ENV)
+2.659 E .32 LW 144 705.2 72 705.2 DL/F4 8/Times-Roman@0 SF .559
+(\207Bill Jo)72 717 R 1.599 -.52(y, A)-.08 H 2.559(nI).52 G .559
+(ntroduction to the C Shell,)-2.559 F/F5 8/Times-Italic@0 SF .558
+(UNIX User')2.558 F 2.558(sS)-.32 G .558(upplementary Documents)-2.558 F
+F4 2.558(,U)C(ni)-2.558 E -.12(ve)-.2 G .558(rsity of California at).12
+F(Berk)72 727 Q(ele)-.08 E 1.04 -.52(y, 1)-.12 H(986.).52 E EP
+%%Page: 4 4
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-4-)282.17 48 Q(only for interacti)72 84 Q .3
+-.15(ve s)-.25 H(hells.).15 E/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(4.2. New)72 108
+R(Builtin Commands)2.5 E F0 1.02(There are a fe)97 123.6 R 3.52(wb)-.25
+G 1.02(uiltins which are ne)-3.72 F 3.52(wo)-.25 G 3.52(rh)-3.52 G -2.25
+-.2(av e)-3.52 H 1.02(been e)3.72 F 1.02(xtended in Bash.)-.15 F(The)
+6.02 E F1(enable)3.52 E F0 -.2(bu)3.52 G 1.02(iltin allo).2 F(ws)-.25 E
+-.2(bu)72 135.6 S .824(iltin commands to be turned on and of).2 F 3.324
+(fa)-.25 G(rbitrarily)-3.324 E 5.824(.T)-.65 G 3.324(ou)-6.624 G .824
+(se the v)-3.324 F .824(ersion of)-.15 F/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(ec)
+3.324 E(ho)-.15 E F0 .825(found in a user')3.324 F 3.325(ss)-.55 G
+(earch)-3.325 E .625(path rather than the Bash b)72 147.6 R(uiltin,)-.2
+E/F3 10/Courier@0 SF .625(enable -n echo)3.125 F F0(suf)3.125 E 3.125
+(\214ces. The)-.25 F F1(help)3.124 E F0 -.2(bu)3.124 G .624(iltin pro).2
+F .624(vides quick synopses)-.15 F .703(of the shell f)72 159.6 R .704
+(acilities without requiring access to a manual page.)-.1 F F1(Builtin)
+5.704 E F0 .704(is similar to)3.204 F F1(command)3.204 E F0 .704
+(in that it)3.204 F .342(bypasses shell functions and directly e)72
+171.6 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .342(cutes b).15 F .342(uiltin commands.)-.2 F
+.342(Access to a csh-style stack of directories)5.342 F .072(is pro)72
+183.6 R .073(vided via the)-.15 F F1(pushd)2.573 E F0(,)A F1(popd)2.573
+E F0 2.573(,a)C(nd)-2.573 E F1(dirs)2.573 E F0 -.2(bu)2.573 G(iltins.).2
+E F1(Pushd)5.073 E F0(and)2.573 E F1(popd)2.573 E F0 .073
+(insert and remo)2.573 F .373 -.15(ve d)-.15 H .073(irectories from the)
+.15 F 2.858(stack, respecti)72 195.6 R -.15(ve)-.25 G(ly).15 E 5.358(,a)
+-.65 G(nd)-5.358 E F1(dirs)5.358 E F0 2.858(lists the stack contents.)
+5.358 F 2.858(On systems that allo)7.858 F 5.358<778c>-.25 G 2.857
+(ne-grained control of)-5.358 F 1.339(resources, the)72 207.6 R F1
+(ulimit)3.839 E F0 -.2(bu)3.839 G 1.339
+(iltin can be used to tune these settings.).2 F F1(Ulimit)6.34 E F0
+(allo)3.84 E 1.34(ws a user to control, among)-.25 F 1.086
+(other things, whether core dumps are to be generated, ho)72 219.6 R
+3.586(wm)-.25 G 1.086(uch memory the shell or a child process is)-3.586
+F(allo)72 231.6 Q .496(wed to allocate, and ho)-.25 F 2.996(wl)-.25 G
+(ar)-2.996 E .496(ge a \214le created by a child process can gro)-.18 F
+4.296 -.65(w. T)-.25 H(he).65 E F1(suspend)2.996 E F0 .497(command will)
+2.997 F .744(stop the shell process when job control is acti)72 243.6 R
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 3.243(;m).15 G .743(ost other shells do not allo)-3.243 F
+3.243(wt)-.25 G(hemselv)-3.243 E .743(es to be stopped)-.15 F(lik)72
+255.6 Q 2.717(et)-.1 G(hat.)-2.717 E F1 -.74(Ty)5.217 G(pe,).74 E F0
+.217(the Bash answer to)2.717 F F1(which)2.717 E F0(and)2.717 E F1
+(whence,)2.717 E F0(sho)2.717 E .218(ws what will happen when a w)-.25 F
+.218(ord is typed as a)-.1 F(command:)72 267.6 Q F3 6($t)97 285.6 S
+(ype export)-6 E(export is a shell builtin)97 297.6 Q 6($t)97 309.6 S
+(ype -t export)-6 E(builtin)97 321.6 Q 6($t)97 333.6 S(ype bash)-6 E
+(bash is /bin/bash)97 345.6 Q 6($t)97 357.6 S(ype cd)-6 E
+(cd is a function)97 369.6 Q(cd \(\))97 381.6 Q({)97 393.6 Q
+(builtin cd ${1+"$@"} && xtitle $HOST: $PWD)121 405.6 Q(})97 417.6 Q F0
+-1.11(Va)72 439.2 S .682(rious modes tell what a command w)1.11 F .681
+(ord is \(reserv)-.1 F .681(ed w)-.15 F .681(ord, alias, function, b)-.1
+F .681(uiltin, or \214le\) or which v)-.2 F(er)-.15 E(-)-.2 E 1.15
+(sion of a command will be e)72 451.2 R -.15(xe)-.15 G 1.15
+(cuted based on a user').15 F 3.65(ss)-.55 G 1.15(earch path.)-3.65 F
+1.15(Some of this functionality has been)6.15 F
+(adopted by POSIX.2 and folded into the)72 463.2 Q F1(command)2.5 E F0
+(utility)2.5 E(.)-.65 E F1 2.5(4.3. Editing)72 487.2 R(and Completion)
+2.5 E F0 .682(One area in which Bash shines is command line editing.)97
+502.8 R .682(Bash uses the)5.682 F F2 -.37(re)3.182 G(adline).37 E F0
+.681(library to read and)3.181 F .942(edit lines when interacti)72 514.8
+R -.15(ve)-.25 G 5.942(.R).15 G .942(eadline is a po)-5.942 F .942
+(werful and \215e)-.25 F .942(xible input f)-.15 F .943
+(acility that a user can con\214gure to)-.1 F(indi)72 526.8 Q .732
+(vidual tastes.)-.25 F .732(It allo)5.732 F .732(ws lines to be edited \
+using either emacs or vi commands, where those commands)-.25 F .2
+(are appropriate.)72 538.8 R .2
+(The full capability of emacs is not present \255 there is no w)5.2 F .2
+(ay to e)-.1 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .2(cute a named command).15 F 1.15
+(with M-x, for instance \255 b)72 550.8 R 1.15(ut the e)-.2 F 1.149
+(xisting commands are more than adequate.)-.15 F 1.149
+(The vi mode is compliant)6.149 F
+(with the command line editing standardized by POSIX.2.)72 562.8 Q 1.69
+(Readline is fully customizable.)97 578.4 R 1.691
+(In addition to the basic commands and k)6.69 F 1.991 -.15(ey b)-.1 H
+1.691(indings, the library).15 F(allo)72 590.4 Q .028
+(ws users to de\214ne additional k)-.25 F .327 -.15(ey b)-.1 H .027
+(indings using a startup \214le.).15 F(The)5.027 E F2(inputr)2.527 E(c)
+-.37 E F0 .027(\214le, which def)2.527 F .027(aults to the \214le)-.1 F
+F2(~/.inputr)72 602.4 Q(c)-.37 E F0 3.002(,i)C 3.002(sr)-3.002 G .503(e\
+ad each time readline initializes, permitting users to maintain a consi\
+stent interf)-3.002 F .503(ace across a)-.1 F .893(set of programs.)72
+614.4 R .893(Readline includes an e)5.893 F .893(xtensible interf)-.15 F
+.892(ace, so each program using the library can add its)-.1 F -.25(ow)72
+626.4 S 3.56(nb).25 G 1.06(indable commands and program-speci\214c k)
+-3.56 F 1.361 -.15(ey b)-.1 H 3.561(indings. Bash).15 F 1.061
+(uses this f)3.561 F 1.061(acility to add bindings that)-.1 F
+(perform history e)72 638.4 Q(xpansion or shell w)-.15 E(ord e)-.1 E
+(xpansions on the current input line.)-.15 E .707
+(Readline interprets a number of v)97 654 R .706
+(ariables which further tune its beha)-.25 F(vior)-.2 E 5.706(.V)-.55 G
+.706(ariables e)-6.816 F .706(xist to control)-.15 F .157
+(whether or not eight-bit characters are directly read as input or con)
+72 666 R -.15(ve)-.4 G .158(rted to meta-pre\214x).15 F .158(ed k)-.15 F
+.458 -.15(ey s)-.1 H .158(equences \(a).15 F(meta-pre\214x)72 678 Q .082
+(ed k)-.15 F .382 -.15(ey s)-.1 H .081(equence consists of the characte\
+r with the eighth bit zeroed, preceded by the).15 F F2(meta-pr)2.581 E
+(e\214x)-.37 E F0(character)72 690 Q 3.233(,u)-.4 G .733
+(sually escape, which selects an alternate k)-3.233 F -.15(ey)-.1 G .734
+(map\), to decide whether to output characters with).15 F .624
+(the eighth bit set directly or as a meta-pre\214x)72 702 R .624(ed k)
+-.15 F .924 -.15(ey s)-.1 H .623
+(equence, whether or not to wrap to a ne).15 F 3.123(ws)-.25 G .623
+(creen line)-3.123 F 1.196
+(when a line being edited is longer than the screen width, the k)72 714
+R -.15(ey)-.1 G 1.196(map to which subsequent k).15 F 1.496 -.15(ey b)
+-.1 H(indings).15 E .531(should apply)72 726 R 3.031(,o)-.65 G 3.031(re)
+-3.031 G -.15(ve)-3.281 G 3.031(nw).15 G .531
+(hat happens when readline w)-3.031 F .531(ants to ring the terminal')
+-.1 F 3.03(sb)-.55 G 3.03(ell. All)-3.03 F .53(of these v)3.03 F
+(ariables)-.25 E EP
+%%Page: 5 5
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-5-)282.17 48 Q
+(can be set in the inputrc \214le.)72 84 Q .284
+(The startup \214le understands a set of C preprocessor)97 99.6 R(-lik)
+-.2 E 2.785(ec)-.1 G .285(onditional constructs which allo)-2.785 F
+2.785(wv)-.25 G(ariables)-3.035 E .12(or k)72 111.6 R .42 -.15(ey b)-.1
+H .119(indings to be assigned based on the application using readline, \
+the terminal currently being used, or).15 F .338(the editing mode.)72
+123.6 R .338(Users can add program-speci\214c bindings to mak)5.338 F
+2.838(et)-.1 G .338(heir li)-2.838 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.838(se).15 G 2.838
+(asier: I)-2.838 F(ha)2.838 E .639 -.15(ve b)-.2 H .339(indings that).15
+F(let me edit the v)72 135.6 Q(alue of)-.25 E/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF($P)
+2.5 E -.95(AT)-.74 G(H).95 E F0(and double-quote the current or pre)2.5
+E(vious w)-.25 E(ord:)-.1 E/F2 10/Courier@0 SF 6(#M)97 153.6 S
+(acros that are convenient for shell interaction)-6 E($if Bash)97 165.6
+Q 6(#e)97 177.6 S(dit the path)-6 E
+("\\C-xp": "PATH=${PATH}\\e\\C-e\\C-a\\ef\\C-f")97 189.6 Q 6(#p)97 201.6
+S(repare to type a quoted word -- insert open and close double)-6 E 6
+(#q)97 213.6 S(uotes and move to just after the open quote)-6 E
+("\\C-x\\"": "\\"\\"\\C-b")97 225.6 Q 6(#Q)97 237.6 S
+(uote the current or previous word)-6 E("\\C-xq": "\\eb\\"\\ef\\"")97
+249.6 Q($endif)97 261.6 Q F0 .322(There is a readline command to re-rea\
+d the \214le, so users can edit the \214le, change some bindings, and b\
+e)72 283.2 R(gin)-.15 E(to use them almost immediately)72 295.2 Q(.)-.65
+E .851(Bash implements the)97 310.8 R F1(bind)3.351 E F0 -.2(bu)3.351 G
+.851(iltin for more dyamic control of readline than the startup \214le \
+permits.).2 F F1(Bind)72 322.8 Q F0 .25(is used in se)2.75 F -.15(ve)
+-.25 G .25(ral w).15 F 2.75(ays. In)-.1 F/F3 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(list)
+2.75 E F0 .25(mode, it can display the current k)2.75 F .55 -.15(ey b)
+-.1 H .25(indings, list all the readline edit-).15 F .149(ing directi)72
+334.8 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.649(sa).15 G -.25(va)-2.849 G .149
+(ilable for binding, list which k).25 F -.15(ey)-.1 G 2.649(si).15 G
+-1.9 -.4(nv o)-2.649 H .349 -.1(ke a g).4 H -2.15 -.25(iv e).1 H 2.65
+(nd).25 G(irecti)-2.65 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.65(,o).15 G 2.65(ro)-2.65 G
+.15(utput the current set of k)-2.65 F -.15(ey)-.1 G .042(bindings in a\
+ format that can be incorporated directly into an inputrc \214le.)72
+346.8 R(In)5.041 E F3(batc)2.541 E(h)-.15 E F0 .041
+(mode, it reads a series of)2.541 F -.1(ke)72 358.8 S 2.858(yb)-.05 G
+.359(indings directly from a \214le and passes them to readline.)-2.858
+F .359(In its most common usage,)5.359 F F1(bind)2.859 E F0(tak)2.859 E
+.359(es a sin-)-.1 F 1.117(gle string and passes it directly to readlin\
+e, which interprets the line as if it had just been read from the)72
+370.8 R(inputrc \214le.)72 382.8 Q(Both k)5 E .3 -.15(ey b)-.1 H
+(indings and v).15 E(ariable assignments may appear in the string gi)
+-.25 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.5(nt).15 G(o)-2.5 E F1(bind)2.5 E F0(.)A .53
+(The readline library also pro)97 398.4 R .53(vides an interf)-.15 F .53
+(ace for)-.1 F F3(wor)3.03 E 3.03(dc)-.37 G(ompletion)-3.03 E F0 5.53
+(.W)C .53(hen the)-5.53 F F3(completion)3.03 E F0(character)3.03 E 1.261
+(\(usually T)72 410.4 R 1.261(AB\) is typed, readline looks at the w)
+-.93 F 1.26(ord currently being entered and computes the set of \214le-)
+-.1 F .523(names of which the current w)72 422.4 R .523(ord is a v)-.1 F
+.523(alid pre\214x.)-.25 F .524
+(If there is only one possible completion, the rest of the)5.523 F .358
+(characters are inserted directly)72 434.4 R 2.858(,o)-.65 G .358(therw\
+ise the common pre\214x of the set of \214lenames is added to the curre\
+nt)-2.858 F -.1(wo)72 446.4 S 3.199(rd. A).1 F .699(second T)3.199 F
+.699(AB character entered immediately after a non-unique completion cau\
+ses readline to list)-.93 F 1.814
+(the possible completions; there is an option to ha)72 458.4 R 2.113
+-.15(ve t)-.2 H 1.813(he list displayed immediately).15 F 6.813(.R)-.65
+G 1.813(eadline pro)-6.813 F(vides)-.15 E .482
+(hooks so that applications can pro)72 470.4 R .482
+(vide speci\214c types of completion before the def)-.15 F .483
+(ault \214lename completion)-.1 F .132(is attempted.)72 482.4 R .132
+(This is quite \215e)5.132 F .132
+(xible, though it is not completely user)-.15 F 2.632
+(-programmable. Bash,)-.2 F .132(for e)2.632 F .132(xample, can)-.15 F
+.37(complete \214lenames, command names \(including aliases, b)72 494.4
+R .37(uiltins, shell reserv)-.2 F .37(ed w)-.15 F .37
+(ords, shell functions, and)-.1 F -.15(exe)72 506.4 S .424
+(cutables found in the \214le system\), shell v).15 F .424
+(ariables, usernames, and hostnames.)-.25 F .423
+(It uses a set of heuristics)5.424 F(that, while not perfect, is genera\
+lly quite good at determining what type of completion to attempt.)72
+518.4 Q F1 2.5(4.4. History)72 542.4 R F0 .144
+(Access to the list of commands pre)97 558 R .144(viously entered \(the)
+-.25 F F3 .144(command history)2.644 F F0 2.644(\)i)C 2.644(sp)-2.644 G
+(ro)-2.644 E .144(vided jointly by Bash)-.15 F .078
+(and the readline library)72 570 R 5.077(.B)-.65 G .077(ash pro)-5.077 F
+.077(vides v)-.15 F .077(ariables \()-.25 F F1($HISTFILE)A F0(,)A F1
+($HISTSIZE)2.577 E F0 2.577(,a)C(nd)-2.577 E F1($HISTCONTR)2.577 E(OL)
+-.3 E F0 2.577(\)a)C(nd)-2.577 E(the)72 582 Q F1(history)2.89 E F0(and)
+2.89 E F1(fc)2.89 E F0 -.2(bu)2.89 G .39
+(iltins to manipulate the history list.).2 F .391(The v)5.391 F .391
+(alue of)-.25 F F1($HISTFILE)2.891 E F0 .391(specifes the \214le where)
+2.891 F .49(Bash writes the command history on e)72 594 R .489
+(xit and reads it on startup.)-.15 F F1($HISTSIZE)5.489 E F0 .489
+(is used to limit the number)2.989 F .642(of commands sa)72 606 R -.15
+(ve)-.2 G 3.142(di).15 G 3.142(nt)-3.142 G .642(he history)-3.142 F(.)
+-.65 E F1($HISTCONTR)5.642 E(OL)-.3 E F0(pro)3.142 E .642
+(vides a crude form of control o)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 3.142(rw).15 G
+.642(hich com-)-3.142 F .025(mands are sa)72 618 R -.15(ve)-.2 G 2.525
+(do).15 G 2.525(nt)-2.525 G .025(he history list: a v)-2.525 F .025
+(alue of)-.25 F F3(ignor)2.525 E(espace)-.37 E F0 .025(means to not sa)
+2.525 F .324 -.15(ve c)-.2 H .024(ommands which be).15 F .024
+(gin with a)-.15 F .927(space; a v)72 630 R .927(alue of)-.25 F F3
+(ignor)3.427 E(edups)-.37 E F0 .927(means to not sa)3.427 F 1.228 -.15
+(ve c)-.2 H .928(ommands identical to the last command sa).15 F -.15(ve)
+-.2 G(d.).15 E F1($HIST)5.928 E(-)-.92 E(CONTR)72 642 Q(OL)-.3 E F0 -.1
+(wa)3.778 G 3.778(sn).1 G(amed)-3.778 E F1($history_contr)3.778 E(ol)
+-.18 E F0 1.278(in earlier v)3.778 F 1.278
+(ersions of Bash; the old name is still accepted for)-.15 F(backw)72 654
+Q .575(ards compatibility)-.1 F 5.575(.T)-.65 G(he)-5.575 E F1(history)
+3.075 E F0 .575
+(command can read or write \214les containing the history list and dis-)
+3.075 F .167(play the current list contents.)72 666 R(The)5.167 E F1(fc)
+2.667 E F0 -.2(bu)2.667 G .167(iltin, adopted from POSIX.2 and the K).2
+F .167(orn Shell, allo)-.35 F .167(ws display and)-.25 F(re-e)72 678 Q
+-.15(xe)-.15 G .58
+(cution, with optional editing, of commands from the history list.).15 F
+.58(The readline library of)5.58 F .58(fers a set of)-.25 F 1.255(comma\
+nds to search the history list for a portion of the current input line \
+or a string typed by the user)72 690 R(.)-.55 E(Finally)72 702 Q 2.535
+(,t)-.65 G(he)-2.535 E F3(history)2.535 E F0(library)2.535 E 2.535(,g)
+-.65 G .036(enerally incorporated directly into the readline library)
+-2.535 F 2.536(,i)-.65 G .036(mplements a f)-2.536 F .036(acility for)
+-.1 F 1.023(history recall, e)72 714 R 1.022(xpansion, and re-e)-.15 F
+-.15(xe)-.15 G 1.022(cution of pre).15 F 1.022(vious commands v)-.25 F
+1.022(ery similar to csh \(\231bang history\232, so)-.15 F
+(called because the e)72 726 Q
+(xclamation point introduces a history substitution\):)-.15 E EP
+%%Page: 6 6
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-6-)282.17 48 Q/F1 10/Courier@0 SF 6($e)97 84 S
+(cho a b c d e)-6 E 6(abcde)97 96 S 6($!)97 108 S 6(!fghi)-6 G
+(echo a b c d e f g h i)97 120 Q 6(abcdefghi)97 132 S 6($!)97 144 S(-2)
+-6 E(echo a b c d e)97 156 Q 6(abcde)97 168 S 6($e)97 180 S(cho !-2:1-4)
+-6 E(echo a b c d)97 192 Q 6(abcd)97 204 S F0 1.456
+(The command history is only sa)72 225.6 R -.15(ve)-.2 G 3.957(dw).15 G
+1.457(hen the shell is interacti)-3.957 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.957(,s).15 G
+3.957(oi)-3.957 G 3.957(ti)-3.957 G 3.957(sn)-3.957 G 1.457(ot a)-3.957
+F -.25(va)-.2 G 1.457(ilable for use by shell).25 F(scripts.)72 237.6 Q
+/F2 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(4.5. New)72 261.6 R(Shell V)2.5 E(ariables)
+-.92 E F0 .59(There are a number of con)97 277.2 R -.15(ve)-.4 G .589
+(nience v).15 F .589(ariables that Bash interprets to mak)-.25 F 3.089
+(el)-.1 G .589(ife easier)-3.089 F 5.589(.T)-.55 G .589(hese include)
+-5.589 F F2(FIGNORE)72 289.2 Q F0 3.973(,w)C 1.473
+(hich is a set of \214lename suf)-3.973 F<8c78>-.25 E 1.474
+(es identifying \214les to e)-.15 F 1.474
+(xclude when completing \214lenames;)-.15 F F2(HOSTTYPE)72 301.2 Q F0
+2.932(,w)C .432
+(hich is automatically set to a string describing the type of hardw)
+-2.932 F .431(are on which Bash is cur)-.1 F(-)-.2 E .335(rently e)72
+313.2 R -.15(xe)-.15 G(cuting;).15 E F2(command_oriented_history)2.835 E
+F0 2.835(,w)C .335(hich directs Bash to sa)-2.835 F .635 -.15(ve a)-.2 H
+.336(ll lines of a multiple-line com-).15 F 1.071(mand such as a)72
+325.2 R/F3 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(while)3.571 E F0(or)3.571 E F3(for)3.571
+E F0 1.071(loop in a single history entry)3.571 F 3.57(,a)-.65 G(llo)
+-3.57 E 1.07(wing easy re-editing; and)-.25 F F2(IGNOREEOF)3.57 E F0(,)A
+.747(whose v)72 337.2 R .747(alue indicates the number of consecuti)-.25
+F 1.047 -.15(ve E)-.25 H .747(OF characters that an interacti).15 F
+1.048 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .748(hell will read before).15 F -.15(ex)72 349.2
+S 1.432(iting \255 an easy w).15 F 1.432(ay to k)-.1 F 1.432
+(eep yourself from being logged out accidentally)-.1 F 6.432(.T)-.65 G
+(he)-6.432 E F2(auto_r)3.932 E(esume)-.18 E F0 -.25(va)3.932 G(riable)
+.25 E .571(alters the w)72 361.2 R .571
+(ay the shell treats simple command names: if job control is acti)-.1 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 3.071(,a).15 G .571(nd this v)-3.071 F .571
+(ariable is set, sin-)-.25 F(gle-w)72 373.2 Q .239(ord simple commands \
+without redirections cause the shell to \214rst look for and restart a \
+suspended job)-.1 F(with that name before starting a ne)72 385.2 Q 2.5
+(wp)-.25 G(rocess.)-2.5 E F2 2.5(4.6. Brace)72 409.2 R(Expansion)2.5 E
+F0 .653(Since sh of)97 424.8 R .653(fers no con)-.25 F -.15(ve)-.4 G
+.653(nient w).15 F .653
+(ay to generate arbitrary strings that share a common pre\214x or suf)
+-.1 F<8c78>-.25 E 2.124(\(\214lename e)72 436.8 R 2.124
+(xpansion requires that the \214lenames e)-.15 F 2.123
+(xist\), Bash implements)-.15 F F3(br)4.623 E 2.123(ace e)-.15 F
+(xpansion)-.2 E F0 4.623(,ac)C(apability)-4.623 E(pick)72 448.8 Q .773
+(ed up from csh.)-.1 F .774(Brace e)5.773 F .774
+(xpansion is similar to \214lename e)-.15 F .774(xpansion, b)-.15 F .774
+(ut the strings generated need not)-.2 F 1.211(correspond to e)72 460.8
+R 1.211(xisting \214les.)-.15 F 3.711(Ab)6.211 G 1.211(race e)-3.711 F
+1.211(xpression consists of an optional)-.15 F F3(pr)3.71 E(eamble)-.37
+E F0 3.71(,f)C(ollo)-3.71 E 1.21(wed by a pair of)-.25 F 2.938
+(braces enclosing a series of comma-separated strings, and an optional)
+72 472.8 R F3(postamble)5.438 E F0 7.938(.T)C 2.938(he preamble is)
+-7.938 F(prepended to each string within the braces, and the postamble \
+is then appended to each resulting string:)72 484.8 Q F1 6($e)97 502.8 S
+(cho a{d,c,b}e)-6 E(ade ace abe)97 514.8 Q F0 .306(As this e)72 536.4 R
+.306(xample demonstrates, the results of brace e)-.15 F .305
+(xpansion are not sorted, as the)-.15 F 2.805(ya)-.15 G .305
+(re by \214lename e)-2.805 F(xpan-)-.15 E(sion.)72 548.4 Q F2 2.5
+(4.7. Pr)72 572.4 R(ocess Substitution)-.18 E F0 .457
+(On systems that can support it, Bash pro)97 588 R .457(vides a f)-.15 F
+.457(acility kno)-.1 F .458(wn as)-.25 F F3(pr)2.958 E .458
+(ocess substitution)-.45 F F0 5.458(.P)C .458(rocess sub-)-5.458 F .347
+(stitution is similar to command substitution in that its speci\214cati\
+on includes a command to e)72 600 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .346(cute, b).15 F
+.346(ut the)-.2 F .181(shell does not collect the command')72 612 R
+2.681(so)-.55 G .181(utput and insert it into the command line.)-2.681 F
+(Rather)5.181 E 2.681(,B)-.4 G .182(ash opens a pipe)-2.681 F 1.861
+(to the command, which is run in the background.)72 624 R 1.861
+(The shell uses named pipes \(FIFOs\) or the)6.861 F F3(/de)4.361 E
+(v/fd)-.15 E F0 .961(method of naming open \214les to e)72 636 R .962(x\
+pand the process substitution to a \214lename which connects to the pip\
+e)-.15 F .104(when opened.)72 648 R .103
+(This \214lename becomes the result of the e)5.104 F 2.603
+(xpansion. Process)-.15 F .103(substitution can be used to com-)2.603 F
+(pare the outputs of tw)72 660 Q 2.5(od)-.1 G(if)-2.5 E(ferent v)-.25 E
+(ersions of an application as part of a re)-.15 E(gression test:)-.15 E
+F1 6($c)97 678 S(mp <\(old_prog\) <\(new_prog\))-6 E EP
+%%Page: 7 7
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-7-)282.17 48 Q/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5
+(4.8. Pr)72 84 R(ompt Customization)-.18 E F0 2.229
+(One of the more popular interacti)97 99.6 R 2.529 -.15(ve f)-.25 H
+2.229(eatures that Bash pro).15 F 2.23
+(vides is the ability to customize the)-.15 F 3.234(prompt. Both)72
+111.6 R F1($PS1)3.234 E F0(and)3.234 E F1($PS2,)3.234 E F0 .734
+(the primary and secondary prompts, are e)3.234 F .733
+(xpanded before being displayed.)-.15 F -.15(Pa)72 123.6 S .804
+(rameter and v).15 F .804(ariable e)-.25 F .805
+(xpansion is performed when the prompt string is e)-.15 F .805
+(xpanded, so an)-.15 F 3.305(ys)-.15 G .805(hell v)-3.305 F(ariable)-.25
+E .729(can be put into the prompt \(e.g.,)72 135.6 R F1($SHL)3.228 E(VL)
+-.92 E F0 3.228(,w)C .728(hich indicates ho)-3.228 F 3.228(wd)-.25 G
+.728(eeply the current shell is nested\).)-3.228 F(Bash)5.728 E 1.895(s\
+pecially interprets characters in the prompt string preceded by a backs\
+lash.)72 147.6 R 1.895(Some of these backslash)6.895 F .874
+(escapes are replaced with the current time, the date, the current w)72
+159.6 R .874(orking directory)-.1 F 3.373(,t)-.65 G .873
+(he username, and the)-3.373 F .78
+(command number or history number of the command being entered.)72 171.6
+R .781(There is e)5.781 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.281(nab).15 G .781
+(ackslash escape to)-3.281 F .007
+(cause the shell to change its prompt when running as root after an)72
+183.6 R/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(su)2.507 E F0 5.007(.B)C .007
+(efore printing each primary prompt,)-5.007 F .305(Bash e)72 195.6 R
+.305(xpands the v)-.15 F(ariable)-.25 E F1($PR)2.805 E(OMPT_COMMAND)-.3
+E F0 .305(and, if it has a v)2.805 F .306(alue, e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G
+.306(cutes the e).15 F .306(xpanded v)-.15 F .306(alue as)-.25 F 3.735
+(ac)72 207.6 S 1.235(ommand, allo)-3.735 F 1.234
+(wing additional prompt customization.)-.25 F -.15(Fo)6.234 G 3.734(re)
+.15 G 1.234(xample, this assignment causes the current)-3.884 F(user)72
+219.6 Q 2.917(,t)-.4 G .417
+(he current host, the time, the last component of the current w)-2.917 F
+.417(orking directory)-.1 F 2.917(,t)-.65 G .418(he le)-2.917 F -.15(ve)
+-.25 G 2.918(lo).15 G 2.918(fs)-2.918 G .418(hell nest-)-2.918 F(ing, a\
+nd the history number of the current command to be embedded into the pr\
+imary prompt:)72 231.6 Q/F3 10/Courier@0 SF 6($P)97 249.6 S
+(S1='\\u@\\h [\\t] \\W\($SHLVL:\\!\)\\$ ')-6 E
+(chet@odin [21:03:44] documentation\(2:636\)$ cd ..)97 261.6 Q
+(chet@odin [21:03:54] src\(2:637\)$)97 273.6 Q F0 .146(The string being\
+ assigned is surrounded by single quotes so that if it is e)72 295.2 R
+.146(xported, the v)-.15 F .146(alue of)-.25 F F1($SHL)2.646 E(VL)-.92 E
+F0(will)2.646 E(be updated by a child shell:)72 307.2 Q F3
+(chet@odin [21:17:35] src\(2:638\)$ export PS1)97 325.2 Q
+(chet@odin [21:17:40] src\(2:639\)$ bash)97 337.2 Q
+(chet@odin [21:17:46] src\(3:696\)$)97 349.2 Q F0
+(The \\$ escape is displayed as \231)72 370.8 Q F1($)A F0 2.5<9a77>C
+(hen running as a normal user)-2.5 E 2.5(,b)-.4 G(ut as \231)-2.7 E F1
+(#)A F0 2.5<9a77>C(hen running as root.)-2.5 E F1 2.5(4.9. File)72 394.8
+R(System V)2.5 E(iews)-.37 E F0 .029(Since Berk)97 410.4 R(ele)-.1 E
+2.529(yi)-.15 G .029
+(ntroduced symbolic links in 4.2 BSD, one of their most anno)-2.529 F
+.03(ying properties has been)-.1 F .764(the \231w)72 422.4 R .764
+(arping\232 to a completely dif)-.1 F .764
+(ferent area of the \214le system when using)-.25 F F1(cd)3.263 E F0
+3.263(,a)C .763(nd the resultant non-intu-)-3.263 F(iti)72 434.4 Q .704
+-.15(ve b)-.25 H(eha).15 E .405(vior of \231)-.2 F F1 .405(cd ..)B F0
+2.905(\232. The)B/F4 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)2.905 E F0 -.1(ke)2.905 G
+.405(rnel treats symbolic links).1 F F2(physically)2.905 E F0 5.405(.W)C
+.405(hen the k)-5.405 F .405(ernel is translating)-.1 F 3.223(ap)72
+446.4 S .723(athname in which one component is a symbolic link, it repl\
+aces all or part of the pathname while pro-)-3.223 F .668
+(cessing the link.)72 458.4 R .668
+(If the contents of the symbolic link be)5.668 F .669
+(gin with a slash, the k)-.15 F .669(ernel replaces the pathname)-.1 F
+.219(entirely; if not, the link contents replace the current component.)
+72 470.4 R .219(In either case, the symbolic link is visible.)5.219 F
+.058(If the link v)72 482.4 R .058(alue is an absolute pathname, the us\
+er \214nds himself in a completely dif)-.25 F .059
+(ferent part of the \214le sys-)-.25 F(tem.)72 494.4 Q .704(Bash pro)97
+510 R .704(vides a)-.15 F F2(lo)3.203 E(gical)-.1 E F0(vie)3.203 E 3.203
+(wo)-.25 G 3.203(ft)-3.203 G .703(he \214le system.)-3.203 F .703
+(In this def)5.703 F .703(ault mode, command and \214lename com-)-.1 F
+.522(pletion and b)72 522 R .522(uiltin commands such as)-.2 F F1(cd)
+3.022 E F0(and)3.022 E F1(pushd)3.022 E F0 .522
+(which change the current w)3.022 F .522(orking directory transpar)-.1 F
+(-)-.2 E .127(ently follo)72 534 R 2.627(ws)-.25 G .127
+(ymbolic links as if the)-2.627 F 2.627(yw)-.15 G .127(ere directories.)
+-2.627 F(The)5.126 E F1($PWD)2.626 E F0 -.25(va)2.626 G .126
+(riable, which holds the shell').25 F 2.626(si)-.55 G .126(dea of)-2.626
+F .366(the current w)72 546 R .366(orking directory)-.1 F 2.866(,d)-.65
+G .367
+(epends on the path used to reach the directory rather than its ph)
+-2.866 F .367(ysical loca-)-.05 F
+(tion in the local \214le system hierarch)72 558 Q 3.8 -.65(y. F)-.05 H
+(or e).5 E(xample:)-.15 E F3 6($c)97 576 S 6(d/)-6 G(usr/local/bin)-6 E
+6($e)97 588 S(cho $PWD)-6 E(/usr/local/bin)97 600 Q 6($p)97 612 S(wd)-6
+E(/usr/local/bin)97 624 Q 6($/)97 636 S(bin/pwd)-6 E
+(/net/share/sun4/local/bin)97 648 Q 6($c)97 660 S 6(d.)-6 G(.)-6 E 6($p)
+97 672 S(wd)-6 E(/usr/local)97 684 Q 6($/)97 696 S(bin/pwd)-6 E
+(/net/share/sun4/local)97 708 Q 6($c)97 720 S 6(d.)-6 G(.)-6 E EP
+%%Page: 8 8
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-8-)282.17 48 Q/F1 10/Courier@0 SF 6($p)97 84 S
+(wd)-6 E(/usr)97 96 Q 6($/)97 108 S(bin/pwd)-6 E(/usr)97 120 Q F0 .3(On\
+e problem with this, of course, arises when programs that do not unders\
+tand the shell')72 141.6 R 2.8(sl)-.55 G .3(ogical notion of)-2.8 F .217
+(the \214le system interpret \231..)72 153.6 R 2.718<9a64>-.7 G(if)
+-2.718 E(ferently)-.25 E 5.218(.T)-.65 G .218
+(his generally happens when Bash completes \214lenames containing)-5.218
+F(\231..)72 165.6 Q 3.384<9a61>-.7 G .884
+(ccording to a logical hierarch)-3.384 F 3.384(yw)-.05 G .884
+(hich does not correspond to their ph)-3.384 F .883(ysical location.)
+-.05 F -.15(Fo)5.883 G 3.383(ru).15 G .883(sers who)-3.383 F
+(\214nd this troublesome, a corresponding)72 177.6 Q/F2 10
+/Times-Italic@0 SF(physical)2.5 E F0(vie)2.5 E 2.5(wo)-.25 G 2.5(ft)-2.5
+G(he \214le system is a)-2.5 E -.25(va)-.2 G(ilable:).25 E F1 6($c)97
+195.6 S 6(d/)-6 G(usr/local/bin)-6 E 6($p)97 207.6 S(wd)-6 E
+(/usr/local/bin)97 219.6 Q 6($s)97 231.6 S(et -o physical)-6 E 6($p)97
+243.6 S(wd)-6 E(/net/share/sun4/local/bin)97 255.6 Q/F3 10/Times-Bold@0
+SF 2.5(4.10. Inter)72 285.6 R(nationalization)-.15 E F0 .145
+(One of the most signi\214cant impro)97 301.2 R -.15(ve)-.15 G .145
+(ments in v).15 F .145(ersion 1.13 of Bash w)-.15 F .145
+(as the change to \231eight-bit clean-)-.1 F 2.933(liness\232. Pre)72
+313.2 R .433(vious v)-.25 F .432
+(ersions used the eighth bit of characters to mark whether or not the)
+-.15 F 2.932(yw)-.15 G .432(ere quoted when)-2.932 F 1.495(performing w)
+72 325.2 R 1.495(ord e)-.1 F 3.995(xpansions. While)-.15 F 1.495
+(this did not af)3.995 F 1.496
+(fect the majority of users, most of whom used only)-.25 F(se)72 337.2 Q
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 1.236(n-bit ASCII characters, some found it con\214ning.)
+.15 F(Be)6.236 E 1.236(ginning with v)-.15 F 1.236
+(ersion 1.13, Bash implemented a)-.15 F(dif)72 349.2 Q .02(ferent quoti\
+ng mechanism that did not alter the eighth bit of characters.)-.25 F
+.021(This allo)5.021 F .021(wed Bash to manipulate)-.25 F .427
+(\214les with \231odd\232 characters in their names, b)72 361.2 R .427
+(ut did nothing to help users enter those names, so v)-.2 F .426
+(ersion 1.13)-.15 F 1.458
+(introduced changes to readline that made it eight-bit clean as well.)72
+373.2 R 1.458(Options e)6.458 F 1.458(xist that force readline to)-.15 F
+.744(attach no special signi\214cance to characters with the eighth bit\
+ set \(the def)72 385.2 R .744(ault beha)-.1 F .744(vior is to con)-.2 F
+-.15(ve)-.4 G .744(rt these).15 F .641(characters to meta-pre\214x)72
+397.2 R .641(ed k)-.15 F .941 -.15(ey s)-.1 H .642
+(equences\) and to output these characters without con).15 F -.15(ve)-.4
+G .642(rsion to meta-pre-).15 F<8c78>72 409.2 Q .008(ed sequences.)-.15
+F .007(These changes, along with the e)5.007 F .007(xpansion of k)-.15 F
+-.15(ey)-.1 G .007(maps to a full eight bits, enable readline to).15 F
+-.1(wo)72 421.2 S(rk with most of the ISO-8859 f).1 E
+(amily of character sets, used by man)-.1 E 2.5(yE)-.15 G
+(uropean countries.)-2.5 E F3 2.5(4.11. POSIX)72 445.2 R(Mode)2.5 E F0
+.584(Although Bash is intended to be POSIX.2 conformant, there are area\
+s in which the def)97 460.8 R .584(ault beha)-.1 F(vior)-.2 E .463
+(is not compatible with the standard.)72 472.8 R -.15(Fo)5.463 G 2.962
+(ru).15 G .462(sers who wish to operate in a strict POSIX.2 en)-2.962 F
+.462(vironment, Bash)-.4 F .505(implements a)72 484.8 R F2 .505
+(POSIX mode)3.005 F F0 5.505(.W)C .505(hen this mode is acti)-5.505 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 3.005(,B).15 G .505(ash modi\214es its def)-3.005 F .505
+(ault operation where it dif)-.1 F(fers)-.25 E .267
+(from POSIX.2 to match the standard.)72 496.8 R .266
+(POSIX mode is entered when Bash is started with the)5.267 F F3(-posix)
+2.766 E F0(option.)2.766 E .149(This feature is also a)72 508.8 R -.25
+(va)-.2 G .149(ilable as an option to the).25 F F3(set)2.649 E F0 -.2
+(bu)2.649 G(iltin,).2 E F3 .149(set -o posix)2.649 F F0 5.149(.F)C .149
+(or compatibility with other GNU)-5.299 F(softw)72 520.8 Q 4.02(are tha\
+t attempts to be POSIX.2 compliant, Bash also enters POSIX mode if the \
+v)-.1 F(ariable)-.25 E F3($POSIXL)72 532.8 Q(Y_CORRECT)-.92 E F0 5.824
+(is set when Bash is started or assigned a v)8.324 F 5.825
+(alue during e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G(cution.).15 E F3($POSIX_PED)72
+544.8 Q(ANTIC)-.35 E F0 .27
+(is accepted as well, to be compatible with some older GNU utilities.)
+2.77 F .27(When Bash is)5.27 F .506(started in POSIX mode, for e)72
+556.8 R .506(xample, it sources the \214le named by the v)-.15 F .507
+(alue of)-.25 F F3($ENV)3.007 E F0 .507(rather than the \231nor)3.007 F
+(-)-.2 E(mal\232 startup \214les, and does not allo)72 568.8 Q 2.5(wr)
+-.25 G(eserv)-2.5 E(ed w)-.15 E(ords to be aliased.)-.1 E F3 2.5(5. New)
+72 592.8 R -.25(Fe)2.5 G(atur).25 E(es and Futur)-.18 E 2.5(eP)-.18 G
+(lans)-2.5 E F0 1.632(There are se)97 608.4 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.632
+(ral features introduced in the current v).15 F 1.631(ersion of Bash, v)
+-.15 F 1.631(ersion 1.14, and a number)-.15 F .241
+(under consideration for future releases.)72 620.4 R .242
+(This section will brie\215y detail the ne)5.242 F 2.742(wf)-.25 G .242
+(eatures in v)-2.742 F .242(ersion 1.14 and)-.15 F(describe se)72 632.4
+Q -.15(ve)-.25 G(ral features that may appear in later v).15 E(ersions.)
+-.15 E F3 2.5(5.1. New)72 656.4 R -.25(Fe)2.5 G(atur).25 E
+(es in Bash-1.14)-.18 E F0 .884(The ne)97 672 R 3.384(wf)-.25 G .884
+(eatures a)-3.384 F -.25(va)-.2 G .884(ilable in Bash-1.14 answer se).25
+F -.15(ve)-.25 G .883(ral of the most common requests for enhance-).15 F
+2.931(ments. Most)72 684 R(notably)2.931 E 2.931(,t)-.65 G .432(here is\
+ a mechanism for including non-visible character sequences in prompts, \
+such)-2.931 F .136
+(as those which cause a terminal to print characters in dif)72 696 R
+.135(ferent colors or in standout mode.)-.25 F .135(There w)5.135 F .135
+(as noth-)-.1 F .558(ing pre)72 708 R -.15(ve)-.25 G .558
+(nting the use of these sequences in earlier v).15 F .559(ersions, b)
+-.15 F .559(ut the readline redisplay algorithm assumed)-.2 F
+(each character occupied ph)72 720 Q(ysical screen space and w)-.05 E
+(ould wrap lines prematurely)-.1 E(.)-.65 E EP
+%%Page: 9 9
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-9-)282.17 48 Q .13(Readline has a fe)97 84 R
+2.63(wn)-.25 G .63 -.25(ew va)-2.63 H .13(riables, se).25 F -.15(ve)-.25
+G .13(ral ne).15 F 2.63(wb)-.25 G .13
+(indable commands, and some additional emacs mode)-2.63 F(def)72 96 Q
+.918(ault k)-.1 F 1.218 -.15(ey b)-.1 H 3.418(indings. A).15 F(ne)3.418
+E 3.418(wh)-.25 G .919(istory search mode has been implemented: in this\
+ mode, readline searches)-3.418 F .336(the history for lines be)72 108 R
+.336(ginning with the characters between the be)-.15 F .336
+(ginning of the current line and the cursor)-.15 F(.)-.55 E .555(The e)
+72 120 R .556(xisting readline incremental search commands no longer ma\
+tch identical lines more than once.)-.15 F(File-)5.556 E 1.979
+(name completion no)72 132 R 4.479(we)-.25 G 1.979(xpands v)-4.629 F
+1.979(ariables in directory names.)-.25 F 1.978(The history e)6.978 F
+1.978(xpansion f)-.15 F 1.978(acilities are no)-.1 F(w)-.25 E 1.449
+(nearly completely csh-compatible: missing modi\214ers ha)72 144 R 1.749
+-.15(ve b)-.2 H 1.449(een added and history substitution has been).15 F
+-.15(ex)72 156 S(tended.).15 E(Se)97 171.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G .474
+(ral of the features described earlier).15 F 2.973(,s)-.4 G .473(uch as)
+-2.973 F/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF .473(set -o posix)2.973 F F0(and)2.973 E
+F1($POSIX_PED)2.973 E(ANTIC)-.35 E F0 2.973(,a)C .473(re ne)-2.973 F
+2.973(wi)-.25 G(n)-2.973 E -.15(ve)72 183.6 S .106(rsion 1.14.).15 F
+.106(There is a ne)5.106 F 2.606(ws)-.25 G .106(hell v)-2.606 F
+(ariable,)-.25 E F1(OSTYPE)2.606 E F0 2.606(,t)C 2.606(ow)-2.606 G .106
+(hich Bash assigns a v)-2.606 F .106(alue that identi\214es the v)-.25 F
+(er)-.15 E(-)-.2 E 1.38(sion of)72 195.6 R/F2 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)
+3.88 E F0(it')3.88 E 3.879(sr)-.55 G 1.379(unning on \(great for puttin\
+g architecture-speci\214c binary directories into the)-3.879 F F1($P)
+3.879 E -.95(AT)-.74 G(H).95 E F0(\).)A -1 -.8(Tw o)72 207.6 T -.25(va)
+6.215 G 2.915(riables ha).25 F 3.215 -.15(ve b)-.2 H 2.915(een renamed:)
+.15 F F1($HISTCONTR)5.416 E(OL)-.3 E F0(replaces)5.416 E F1
+($history_contr)5.416 E(ol)-.18 E F0 5.416(,a)C(nd)-5.416 E F1
+($HOSTFILE)5.416 E F0(replaces)72 219.6 Q F1
+($hostname_completion_\214le)2.521 E F0 5.021(.I)C 2.521(nb)-5.021 G
+.021(oth cases, the old names are accepted for backw)-2.521 F .02
+(ards compatibil-)-.1 F(ity)72 231.6 Q 5.788(.T)-.65 G .788(he ksh)
+-5.788 F/F3 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(select)3.288 E F0 .788
+(construct, which allo)3.288 F .788
+(ws the generation of simple menus, has been implemented.)-.25 F(Ne)
+5.788 E(w)-.25 E 1.496(capabilities ha)72 243.6 R 1.796 -.15(ve b)-.2 H
+1.496(een added to e).15 F 1.495(xisting v)-.15 F(ariables:)-.25 E F1
+($auto_r)3.995 E(esume)-.18 E F0 1.495(can no)3.995 F 3.995(wt)-.25 G
+(ak)-3.995 E 3.995(ev)-.1 G 1.495(alues of)-4.245 F F3 -.2(ex)3.995 G
+(act).2 E F0(or)3.995 E F3(sub-)3.995 E(string)72 255.6 Q F0 4.843(,a)C
+(nd)-4.843 E F1($HISTCONTR)4.843 E(OL)-.3 E F0 2.343(understands the v)
+4.843 F(alue)-.25 E F3(ignor)4.844 E(eboth)-.37 E F0 4.844(,w)C 2.344
+(hich combines the tw)-4.844 F 4.844(op)-.1 G(re)-4.844 E(viously)-.25 E
+1.556(acceptable v)72 267.6 R 4.056(alues. The)-.25 F F1(dirs)4.056 E F0
+-.2(bu)4.056 G 1.556(iltin has acquired options to print out speci\214c\
+ members of the directory).2 F 3.062(stack. The)72 279.6 R F1($nolinks)
+3.062 E F0 -.25(va)3.062 G .562(riable, which forces a ph).25 F .562
+(ysical vie)-.05 F 3.062(wo)-.25 G 3.062(ft)-3.062 G .563
+(he \214le system, has been superseded by the)-3.062 F F1<ad50>72 291.6
+Q F0 .494(option to the)2.994 F F1(set)2.994 E F0 -.2(bu)2.994 G .494
+(iltin \(equi).2 F -.25(va)-.25 G .494(lent to).25 F F1 .494(set -o ph)
+2.994 F(ysical)-.15 E F0 .493(\); the v)B .493
+(ariable is retained for backw)-.25 F .493(ards compati-)-.1 F(bility)72
+303.6 Q 5.196(.T)-.65 G .196(he v)-5.196 F .196
+(ersion string contained in)-.15 F F1($B)2.696 E(ASH_VERSION)-.3 E F0
+(no)2.696 E 2.696(wi)-.25 G .196(ncludes an indication of the patch le)
+-2.696 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.696(la).15 G(s)-2.696 E .85(well as the \231b)
+72 315.6 R .85(uild v)-.2 F 3.35(ersion\232. Some)-.15 F .85
+(little-used features ha)3.35 F 1.15 -.15(ve b)-.2 H .85(een remo).15 F
+-.15(ve)-.15 G 3.35(d: the).15 F F1(by)3.35 E(e)-.1 E F0(synon)3.35 E
+.85(ym for)-.15 F F1(exit)3.35 E F0(and)3.35 E(the)72 327.6 Q F1($NO_PR)
+3.498 E(OMPT_V)-.3 E(ARS)-1.35 E F0 -.25(va)3.498 G .998
+(riable are gone.).25 F .998(There is no)5.998 F 3.498(wa)-.25 G 3.498
+(no)-3.498 G -2.19 -.18(rg a)-3.498 H .998
+(nized test suite that can be run as a).18 F(re)72 339.6 Q
+(gression test when b)-.15 E(uilding a ne)-.2 E 2.5(wv)-.25 G
+(ersion of Bash.)-2.65 E 1.696(The documentation has been thoroughly o)
+97 355.2 R -.15(ve)-.15 G 1.696(rhauled: there is a ne).15 F 4.196(wm)
+-.25 G 1.695(anual page on the readline)-4.196 F .467(library and the)72
+367.2 R F3(info)2.967 E F0 .467
+(\214le has been updated to re\215ect the current v)2.967 F 2.968
+(ersion. As)-.15 F(al)2.968 E -.1(wa)-.1 G .468(ys, as man).1 F 2.968
+(yb)-.15 G .468(ugs as possi-)-3.168 F(ble ha)72 379.2 Q .3 -.15(ve b)
+-.2 H(een \214x).15 E(ed, although some surely remain.)-.15 E F1 2.5
+(5.2. Other)72 403.2 R -.25(Fe)2.5 G(atur).25 E(es)-.18 E F0 1.68
+(There are a fe)97 418.8 R 4.18(wf)-.25 G 1.68
+(eatures that I hope to include in later Bash releases.)-4.18 F 1.68
+(Some are based on w)6.68 F(ork)-.1 E(already done in other shells.)72
+430.8 Q .958(In addition to simple v)97 446.4 R .959(ariables, a future\
+ release of Bash will include one-dimensional arrays, using)-.25 F .206
+(the ksh implementation of arrays as a model.)72 458.4 R .205
+(Additions to the ksh syntax, such as)5.205 F F3(varname)2.705 E F0 .205
+(=\( ... \) to assign)B 2.587(al)72 470.4 S .087(ist of w)-2.587 F .088
+(ords directly to an array and a mechanism to allo)-.1 F 2.588(wt)-.25 G
+(he)-2.588 E F1 -.18(re)2.588 G(ad).18 E F0 -.2(bu)2.588 G .088
+(iltin to read a list of v).2 F .088(alues directly)-.25 F .092
+(into an array)72 482.4 R 2.592(,w)-.65 G .092(ould be desirable.)-2.692
+F(Gi)5.092 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.592(nt).15 G .092(hose e)-2.592 F .092
+(xtensions, the ksh)-.15 F F1 .092(set \255A)2.592 F F0 .091
+(syntax may not be w)2.591 F .091(orth support-)-.1 F(ing \(the)72 494.4
+Q F1<ad41>2.5 E F0(option assigns a list of v)2.5 E(alues to an array)
+-.25 E 2.5(,b)-.65 G(ut is a rather peculiar special case\).)-2.7 E .76
+(Some shells include a means of)97 510 R F3(pr)3.26 E -.1(og)-.45 G -.15
+(ra).1 G(mmable).15 E F0 -.1(wo)3.26 G .76
+(rd completion, where the user speci\214es on a per).1 F(-)-.2 E .163
+(command basis ho)72 522 R 2.663(wt)-.25 G .163(he ar)-2.663 F .163(gum\
+ents of the command are to be treated when completion is attempted: as \
+\214le-)-.18 F .194(names, hostnames, e)72 534 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .194
+(cutable \214les, and so on.).15 F .195
+(The other aspects of the current Bash implementation could)5.195 F .482
+(remain as-is; the e)72 546 R .482(xisting heuristics w)-.15 F .481
+(ould still be v)-.1 F 2.981(alid. Only)-.25 F .481
+(when completing the ar)2.981 F .481(guments to a simple)-.18 F
+(command w)72 558 Q(ould the programmable completion be in ef)-.1 E
+(fect.)-.25 E .479(It w)97 573.6 R .479(ould also be nice to gi)-.1 F
+.779 -.15(ve t)-.25 H .479(he user \214ner).15 F .479
+(-grained control o)-.2 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 2.98(rw).15 G .48
+(hich commands are sa)-2.98 F -.15(ve)-.2 G 2.98(do).15 G .48(nto the)
+-2.98 F 1.786(history list.)72 585.6 R 1.786(One proposal is for a v)
+6.786 F 1.786(ariable, tentati)-.25 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.786(ly named).15
+F F1(HISTIGNORE)4.286 E F0 4.285(,w)C 1.785(hich w)-4.285 F 1.785
+(ould contain a)-.1 F .496(colon-separated list of commands.)72 597.6 R
+.496(Lines be)5.496 F .496
+(ginning with these commands, after the restrictions of)-.15 F F1($HIST)
+2.997 E(-)-.92 E(CONTR)72 609.6 Q(OL)-.3 E F0(ha)2.65 E .45 -.15(ve b)
+-.2 H .15(een applied, w).15 F .15
+(ould not be placed onto the history list.)-.1 F .15
+(The shell pattern-matching capa-)5.15 F(bilities could also be a)72
+621.6 Q -.25(va)-.2 G(ilable when specifying the contents of).25 E F1
+($HISTIGNORE)2.5 E F0(.)A .729(One thing that ne)97 637.2 R .729
+(wer shells such as)-.25 F F1(wksh)3.229 E F0 .729(\(also kno)3.229 F
+.729(wn as)-.25 F F1(dtksh)3.23 E F0 3.23(\)p)C(ro)-3.23 E .73
+(vide is a command to dynami-)-.15 F 1.189
+(cally load code implementing additional b)72 649.2 R 1.189
+(uiltin commands into a running shell.)-.2 F 1.188(This ne)6.188 F 3.688
+(wb)-.25 G 1.188(uiltin w)-3.888 F(ould)-.1 E(tak)72 661.2 Q 2.875(ea)
+-.1 G 2.875(no)-2.875 G .375
+(bject \214le or shared library implementing the \231body\232 of the b)
+-2.875 F .375(uiltin \()-.2 F F3(xxx_b)A(uiltin\(\))-.2 E F0 .375
+(for those f)2.875 F(amiliar)-.1 E .052
+(with Bash internals\) and a structure containing the name of the ne)72
+673.2 R 2.552(wc)-.25 G .051(ommand, the function to call when the)
+-2.552 F(ne)72 685.2 Q 3.458(wb)-.25 G .958(uiltin is in)-3.658 F -.2
+(vo)-.4 G -.1(ke).2 G 3.458(d\().1 G .959
+(presumably de\214ned in the shared object speci\214ed as an ar)-3.458 F
+.959(gument\), and the docu-)-.18 F 1.352
+(mentation to be printed by the)72 697.2 R F1(help)3.851 E F0 1.351
+(command \(possibly present in the shared object as well\).)3.851 F
+1.351(It w)6.351 F(ould)-.1 E(manage the details of e)72 709.2 Q
+(xtending the internal table of b)-.15 E(uiltins.)-.2 E EP
+%%Page: 10 10
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-10-)279.67 48 Q 3.291(Af)97 84 S 1.291 -.25
+(ew o)-3.291 H .791(ther b).25 F .791(uiltins w)-.2 F .791
+(ould also be desirable: tw)-.1 F 3.291(oa)-.1 G .791(re the POSIX.2)
+-3.291 F/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF(getconf)3.292 E F0 .792
+(command, which prints)3.292 F 1.412(the v)72 96 R 1.412
+(alues of system con\214guration v)-.25 F 1.411
+(ariables de\214ned by POSIX.2, and a)-.25 F F1(diso)3.911 E(wn)-.1 E F0
+-.2(bu)3.911 G 1.411(iltin, which causes a).2 F 1.347
+(shell running with job control acti)72 108 R 1.647 -.15(ve t)-.25 H
+3.847<6f99>.15 G(for)-3.847 E 1.347
+(get about\232 one or more background jobs in its internal jobs)-.18 F
+3.465(table. Using)72 120 R F1(getconf)3.465 E F0 3.465(,f)C .965(or e)
+-3.465 F .965(xample, a user could retrie)-.15 F 1.264 -.15(ve a v)-.25
+H .964(alue for)-.1 F F1($P)3.464 E -.95(AT)-.74 G(H).95 E F0 .964
+(guaranteed to \214nd all of the)3.464 F .884
+(POSIX standard utilities, or \214nd out ho)72 132 R 3.385(wl)-.25 G
+.885
+(ong \214lenames may be in the \214le system containing a speci\214ed)
+-3.385 F(directory)72 144 Q(.)-.65 E 1.521
+(There are no implementation timetables for an)97 159.6 R 4.021(yo)-.15
+G 4.021(ft)-4.021 G 1.52(hese features, nor are there concrete plans to)
+-4.021 F(include them.)72 171.6 Q(If an)5 E(yone has comments on these \
+proposals, feel free to send me electronic mail.)-.15 E F1 2.5
+(6. Re\215ections)72 195.6 R(and Lessons Lear)2.5 E(ned)-.15 E F0 .433
+(The lesson that has been repeated most often during Bash de)97 211.2 R
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .433(lopment is that there are dark corners).15 F .181
+(in the Bourne shell, and people use all of them.)72 223.2 R .18
+(In the original description of the Bourne shell, quoting and)5.181 F
+.073(the shell grammar are both poorly speci\214ed and incomplete; subs\
+equent descriptions ha)72 235.2 R .373 -.15(ve n)-.2 H .073
+(ot helped much.).15 F 1.856(The grammar presented in Bourne')72 247.2 R
+4.356(sp)-.55 G 1.856(aper describing the shell distrib)-4.356 F 1.855
+(uted with the Se)-.2 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.855(nth Edition of).15 F/F2 9
+/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)72 259.2 Q F0 2.5<8769>C 2.5(ss)-2.5 G 2.5(of)
+-2.5 G(ar of)-2.6 E 2.5(ft)-.25 G(hat it does not allo)-2.5 E 2.5(wt)
+-.25 G(he command)-2.5 E/F3 10/Courier@0 SF(who|wc)2.5 E F0 5(.I)C 2.5
+(nf)-5 G(act, as T)-2.6 E(om Duf)-.8 E 2.5(fs)-.25 G(tates:)-2.5 E 1.375
+(Nobody really kno)97 274.8 R 1.375(ws what the Bourne shell')-.25 F
+3.875(sg)-.55 G 1.375(rammar is.)-3.875 F(Ev)6.376 E 1.376(en e)-.15 F
+1.376(xamination of the source)-.15 F(code is little help.\210)97 286.8
+Q .382(The POSIX.2 standard includes a)72 302.4 R/F4 10/Times-Italic@0
+SF(yacc)2.882 E F0 .382
+(grammar that comes close to capturing the Bourne shell')2.882 F 2.882
+(sb)-.55 G(eha)-2.882 E(vior)-.2 E(,)-.4 E -.2(bu)72 314.4 S 3.246(ti).2
+G 3.246(td)-3.246 G(isallo)-3.246 E .747(ws some constructs which sh ac\
+cepts without complaint \255 and there are scripts out there that)-.25 F
+.501(use them.)72 326.4 R .501(It took a fe)5.501 F 3.001(wv)-.25 G .501
+(ersions and se)-3.151 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .501(ral b).15 F .5
+(ug reports before Bash implemented sh-compatible quoting,)-.2 F .279
+(and there are still some \231le)72 338.4 R -.05(ga)-.15 G .279
+(l\232 sh constructs which Bash \215ags as syntax errors.).05 F .28
+(Complete sh compatibility)5.28 F(is a tough nut.)72 350.4 Q 1.231
+(The shell is bigger and slo)97 366 R 1.231(wer than I w)-.25 F 1.231
+(ould lik)-.1 F 1.23(e, though the current v)-.1 F 1.23
+(ersion is substantially f)-.15 F(aster)-.1 E .086(than pre)72 378 R
+(viously)-.25 E 5.086(.T)-.65 G .087
+(he readline library could stand a substantial re)-5.086 F 2.587
+(write. A)-.25 F .087(hand-written parser to replace the)2.587 F
+(current)72 390 Q F4(yacc)2.978 E F0 .478(-generated one w)B .477
+(ould probably result in a speedup, and w)-.1 F .477(ould solv)-.1 F
+2.977(eo)-.15 G .477(ne glaring problem:)-2.977 F(the)5.477 E .384
+(shell could parse commands in \231$\(...\)\232 constructs as the)72 402
+R 2.884(ya)-.15 G .385
+(re entered, rather than reporting errors when the)-2.884 F
+(construct is e)72 414 Q(xpanded.)-.15 E 1.064(As al)97 429.6 R -.1(wa)
+-.1 G 1.064(ys, there is some chaf).1 F 3.564(ft)-.25 G 3.564(og)-3.564
+G 3.564(ow)-3.564 G 1.064(ith the wheat.)-3.564 F 1.063
+(Areas of duplicated functionality need to be)6.063 F .382(cleaned up.)
+72 441.6 R .382(There are se)5.382 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .382
+(ral cases where Bash treats a v).15 F .382
+(ariable specially to enable functionality a)-.25 F -.25(va)-.2 G
+(ilable).25 E .185(another w)72 453.6 R .185(ay \()-.1 F F1($notify)A F0
+(vs.)2.684 E F1 .184(set -o notify)5.184 F F0(and)2.684 E F1($nolinks)
+2.684 E F0(vs.)2.684 E F1 .184(set -o ph)2.684 F(ysical)-.15 E F0 2.684
+(,f)C .184(or instance\); the special treatment)-2.684 F 3.421(of the v)
+72 465.6 R 3.421(ariable name should probably be remo)-.25 F -.15(ve)
+-.15 G 5.921(d. A).15 F(fe)5.921 E 5.921(wm)-.25 G 3.422
+(ore things could stand remo)-5.921 F -.25(va)-.15 G 3.422(l; the).25 F
+F1($allo)72 477.6 Q(w_null_glob_expansion)-.1 E F0(and)4.112 E F1
+($glob_dot_\214lenames)4.112 E F0 -.25(va)4.111 G 1.611
+(riables are of particularly questionable v).25 F(alue.)-.25 E(The)72
+489.6 Q F1($[...])3.977 E F0 1.477(arithmetic e)3.977 F -.25(va)-.25 G
+1.478(luation syntax is redundant no).25 F 3.978(wt)-.25 G 1.478
+(hat the POSIX-mandated)-3.978 F F1($\(\(...\)\))3.978 E F0 1.478
+(construct has)3.978 F .326(been implemented, and could be deleted.)72
+501.6 R .326(It w)5.326 F .326(ould be nice if the te)-.1 F .326
+(xt output by the)-.15 F F1(help)2.825 E F0 -.2(bu)2.825 G .325
+(iltin were e).2 F(xter)-.15 E(-)-.2 E .061
+(nal to the shell rather than compiled into it.)72 513.6 R .062
+(The beha)5.062 F .062(vior enabled by)-.2 F F1
+($command_oriented_history)2.562 E F0 2.562(,w)C(hich)-2.562 E 1.125
+(causes the shell to attempt to sa)72 525.6 R 1.424 -.15(ve a)-.2 H
+1.124(ll lines of a multi-line command in a single history entry).15 F
+3.624(,s)-.65 G 1.124(hould be)-3.624 F(made the def)72 537.6 Q
+(ault and the v)-.1 E(ariable remo)-.25 E -.15(ve)-.15 G(d.).15 E F1 2.5
+(7. A)72 561.6 R -.1(va)-1 G(ilability).1 E F0 .047
+(As with all other GNU softw)97 577.2 R .047(are, Bash is a)-.1 F -.25
+(va)-.2 G .047(ilable for anon).25 F .047(ymous FTP from)-.15 F F4(pr)
+2.547 E(ep.ai.mit.edu:/pub/gnu)-.37 E F0 1.05(and from other GNU softw)
+72 589.2 R 1.05(are mirror sites.)-.1 F 1.049(The current v)6.049 F
+1.049(ersion is in)-.15 F F4(bash-1.14.1.tar)3.549 E(.gz)-1.11 E F0
+1.049(in that directory)3.549 F(.)-.65 E(Use)72 601.2 Q F4(ar)5.965 E
+-.15(ch)-.37 G(ie).15 E F0 3.465(to \214nd the nearest archi)5.965 F
+3.766 -.15(ve s)-.25 H 5.966(ite. The).15 F 3.466(latest v)5.966 F 3.466
+(ersion is al)-.15 F -.1(wa)-.1 G 3.466(ys a).1 F -.25(va)-.2 G 3.466
+(ilable for FTP from).25 F F4(bash.CWR)72 613.2 Q -.25(U.)-.4 G
+(Edu:/pub/dist.).25 E F0(Bash documentation is a)5 E -.25(va)-.2 G
+(ilable for FTP from).25 E F4(bash.CWR)2.5 E -.25(U.)-.4 G
+(Edu:/pub/bash.).25 E F0 1.169(The Free Softw)97 628.8 R 1.169(are F)-.1
+F 1.169(oundation sells tapes and CD-R)-.15 F 1.168
+(OMs containing Bash; send electronic mail to)-.4 F F3
+(gnu@prep.ai.mit.edu)72 640.8 Q F0(or call)2.5 E F3(+1-617-876-3296)2.5
+E F0(for more information.)2.5 E .694(Bash is also distrib)97 656.4 R
+.694(uted with se)-.2 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .694(ral v).15 F .694(ersions of)
+-.15 F F2(UNIX)3.194 E F0 .694(-compatible systems.)B .695
+(It is included as /bin/sh)5.694 F .948(and /bin/bash on se)72 668.4 R
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .948(ral Linux distrib).15 F .948
+(utions \(more about the dif)-.2 F .948
+(ference in a moment\), and as contrib)-.25 F(uted)-.2 E .32 LW 144
+676.4 72 676.4 DL/F5 8/Times-Roman@0 SF .781
+(\207S. R. Bourne, \231UNIX T)72 688.2 R .781(ime-Sharing System:)-.28 F
+.781(The UNIX Shell\232,)4.781 F/F6 8/Times-Italic@0 SF .78
+(Bell System T)2.78 F(ec)-.736 E .78(hnical J)-.12 F(ournal)-.2 E F5
+2.78(,5)C .78(7\(6\), July-)-2.78 F(August, 1978, pp. 1971-1990.)72
+698.2 Q<8854>72 710 Q .431(om Duf)-.64 F .431
+(f, \231Rc \255 A Shell for Plan 9 and)-.2 F/F7 7/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)
+2.432 E F5(systems\232,)2.432 E F6(Pr)2.432 E .432
+(oc. of the Summer 1990 EUUG Confer)-.36 F(ence)-.296 E F5 2.432(,L)C
+(on-)-2.432 E(don, July)72 720 Q 2(,1)-.52 G(990, pp. 21-33.)-2 E EP
+%%Page: 11 11
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF(-11-)279.67 48 Q(softw)72 84 Q(are in BSDI')-.1
+E 2.5(sB)-.55 G(SD/386* and FreeBSD.)-2.5 E .598(The Linux distrib)97
+99.6 R .598(ution deserv)-.2 F .598(es special mention.)-.15 F .598
+(There are tw)5.598 F 3.099(oc)-.1 G .599
+(on\214gurations included in the stan-)-3.099 F .733(dard Bash distrib)
+72 111.6 R .732(ution: a \231normal\232 con\214guration, in which all o\
+f the standard features are included, and a)-.2 F .519(\231minimal\232 \
+con\214guration, which omits job control, aliases, history and command \
+line editing, the directory)72 123.6 R .886(stack and)72 135.6 R/F1 10
+/Times-Bold@0 SF(pushd/popd/dirs,)3.386 E F0 .886(process substitution,\
+ prompt string special character decoding, and the)3.386 F/F2 10
+/Times-Italic@0 SF(select)3.385 E F0 3.368(construct. This)72 147.6 R
+.868(minimal v)3.368 F .869
+(ersion is designed to be a drop-in replacement for the traditional)-.15
+F/F3 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)3.369 E F0(/bin/sh,)3.369 E
+(and is included as the Linux /bin/sh in se)72 159.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G
+(ral packagings.).15 E F1 2.5(8. Conclusion)72 183.6 R F0 .8
+(Bash is a w)97 199.2 R(orth)-.1 E 3.3(ys)-.05 G .8(uccessor to sh.)-3.3
+F .8(It is suf)5.8 F .8(\214ciently portable to run on nearly e)-.25 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .8(ry v).15 F .8(ersion of)-.15 F F3(UNIX)3.299 E F0 .31
+(from 4.3 BSD to SVR4.2, and se)72 211.2 R -.15(ve)-.25 G(ral).15 E F3
+(UNIX)2.81 E F0 -.1(wo)2.81 G(rkalik).1 E 2.81(es. It)-.1 F .311(is rob)
+2.81 F .311(ust enough to replace sh on most of those)-.2 F 1.515
+(systems, and pro)72 223.2 R 1.515(vides more functionality)-.15 F 6.515
+(.I)-.65 G 4.015(th)-6.515 G 1.515(as se)-4.015 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.515
+(ral thousand re).15 F 1.515(gular users, and their feedback has)-.15 F
+(helped to mak)72 235.2 Q 2.5(ei)-.1 G 2.5(ta)-2.5 G 2.5(sg)-2.5 G
+(ood as it is today \255 a testament to the bene\214ts of free softw)
+-2.5 E(are.)-.1 E .32 LW 144 708.2 72 708.2 DL/F4 8/Times-Roman@0 SF
+(*BSD/386 is a trademark of Berk)72 720 Q(ele)-.08 E 2(yS)-.12 G(oftw)-2
+E(are Design, Inc.)-.08 E EP
+%%Trailer
+end
+%%EOF
diff --git a/doc/bash.1 b/doc/bash.1
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40e1fbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/bash.1
@@ -0,0 +1,8866 @@
+\"
+.\" MAN PAGE COMMENTS to
+.\"
+.\"	Chet Ramey
+.\"	Information Network Services
+.\"	Case Western Reserve University
+.\"	chet@po.cwru.edu
+.\"
+.\"	Last Change: Sat Aug 27 13:28:44 EDT 2005
+.\"
+.\" bash_builtins, strip all but Built-Ins section
+.if \n(zZ=1 .ig zZ
+.if \n(zY=1 .ig zY
+.TH BASH 1 "2005 Aug 27" "GNU Bash-3.1-beta1"
+.\"
+.\" There's some problem with having a `@'
+.\" in a tagged paragraph with the BSD man macros.
+.\" It has to do with `@' appearing in the }1 macro.
+.\" This is a problem on 4.3 BSD and Ultrix, but Sun
+.\" appears to have fixed it.
+.\" If you're seeing the characters
+.\" `@u-3p' appearing before the lines reading
+.\" `possible-hostname-completions
+.\" and `complete-hostname' down in READLINE,
+.\" then uncomment this redefinition.
+.\"
+.de }1
+.ds ]X \&\\*(]B\\
+.nr )E 0
+.if !"\\$1"" .nr )I \\$1n
+.}f
+.ll \\n(LLu
+.in \\n()Ru+\\n(INu+\\n()Iu
+.ti \\n(INu
+.ie !\\n()Iu+\\n()Ru-\w\\*(]Xu-3p \{\\*(]X
+.br\}
+.el \\*(]X\h|\\n()Iu+\\n()Ru\c
+.}f
+..
+.\"
+.\" File Name macro.  This used to be `.PN', for Path Name,
+.\" but Sun doesn't seem to like that very much.
+.\"
+.de FN
+\fI\|\\$1\|\fP
+..
+.SH NAME
+bash \- GNU Bourne-Again SHell
+.SH SYNOPSIS
+.B bash
+[options]
+[file]
+.SH COPYRIGHT
+.if n Bash is Copyright (C) 1989-2005 by the Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+.if t Bash is Copyright \(co 1989-2005 by the Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+.SH DESCRIPTION
+.B Bash
+is an \fBsh\fR-compatible command language interpreter that
+executes commands read from the standard input or from a file.
+.B Bash
+also incorporates useful features from the \fIKorn\fP and \fIC\fP
+shells (\fBksh\fP and \fBcsh\fP).
+.PP
+.B Bash
+is intended to be a conformant implementation of the IEEE
+POSIX Shell and Tools specification (IEEE Working Group 1003\.2).
+.B Bash
+can be configured to be POSIX-conformant by default.
+.SH OPTIONS
+In addition to the single-character shell options documented in the
+description of the \fBset\fR builtin command, \fBbash\fR
+interprets the following options when it is invoked:
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP 10
+.BI \-c "\| string\^"
+If the
+.B \-c
+option is present, then commands are read from
+.IR string .
+If there are arguments after the
+.IR string ,
+they are assigned to the positional parameters, starting with
+.BR $0 .
+.TP
+.B \-i
+If the
+.B \-i
+option is present, the shell is
+.IR interactive .
+.TP
+.B \-l
+Make
+.B bash
+act as if it had been invoked as a login shell (see
+.SM
+.B INVOCATION
+below).
+.TP
+.B \-r
+If the
+.B \-r
+option is present, the shell becomes
+.I restricted
+(see
+.SM
+.B "RESTRICTED SHELL"
+below).
+.TP
+.B \-s
+If the
+.B \-s
+option is present, or if no arguments remain after option
+processing, then commands are read from the standard input.
+This option allows the positional parameters to be set
+when invoking an interactive shell.
+.TP
+.B \-D
+A list of all double-quoted strings preceded by \fB$\fP
+is printed on the standard output.
+These are the strings that
+are subject to language translation when the current locale
+is not \fBC\fP or \fBPOSIX\fP.
+This implies the \fB\-n\fP option; no commands will be executed.
+.TP
+.B [\-+]O [\fIshopt_option\fP]
+\fIshopt_option\fP is one of the shell options accepted by the
+\fBshopt\fP builtin (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+If \fIshopt_option\fP is present, \fB\-O\fP sets the value of that option;
+\fB+O\fP unsets it.
+If \fIshopt_option\fP is not supplied, the names and values of the shell
+options accepted by \fBshopt\fP are printed on the standard output.
+If the invocation option is \fB+O\fP, the output is displayed in a format
+that may be reused as input.
+.TP
+.B \-\-
+A
+.B \-\-
+signals the end of options and disables further option processing.
+Any arguments after the
+.B \-\-
+are treated as filenames and arguments.  An argument of
+.B \-
+is equivalent to \fB\-\-\fP.
+.PD
+.PP
+.B Bash
+also interprets a number of multi-character options.
+These options must appear on the command line before the
+single-character options to be recognized.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-\-debugger
+Arrange for the debugger profile to be executed before the shell
+starts.
+Turns on extended debugging mode (see the description of the
+.B extdebug
+option to the
+.B shopt
+builtin below)
+and shell function tracing (see the description of the
+\fB\-o functrace\fP option to the
+.B set
+builtin below).
+.TP
+.B \-\-dump\-po\-strings
+Equivalent to \fB\-D\fP, but the output is in the GNU \fIgettext\fP
+\fBpo\fP (portable object) file format.
+.TP
+.B \-\-dump\-strings
+Equivalent to \fB\-D\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-\-help
+Display a usage message on standard output and exit successfully.
+.TP
+\fB\-\-init\-file\fP \fIfile\fP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB\-\-rcfile\fP \fIfile\fP
+.PD
+Execute commands from
+.I file
+instead of the standard personal initialization file
+.I ~/.bashrc
+if the shell is interactive (see
+.SM
+.B INVOCATION
+below).
+.TP
+.B \-\-login
+Equivalent to \fB\-l\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-\-noediting
+Do not use the GNU
+.B readline
+library to read command lines when the shell is interactive.
+.TP
+.B \-\-noprofile
+Do not read either the system-wide startup file
+.FN /etc/profile
+or any of the personal initialization files
+.IR ~/.bash_profile ,
+.IR ~/.bash_login ,
+or
+.IR ~/.profile .
+By default,
+.B bash
+reads these files when it is invoked as a login shell (see
+.SM
+.B INVOCATION
+below).
+.TP
+.B \-\-norc
+Do not read and execute the personal initialization file
+.I ~/.bashrc
+if the shell is interactive.
+This option is on by default if the shell is invoked as
+.BR sh .
+.TP
+.B \-\-posix
+Change the behavior of \fBbash\fP where the default operation differs
+from the POSIX 1003.2 standard to match the standard (\fIposix mode\fP).
+.TP
+.B \-\-restricted
+The shell becomes restricted (see
+.SM
+.B "RESTRICTED SHELL"
+below).
+.TP
+.B \-\-verbose
+Equivalent to  \fB\-v\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-\-version
+Show version information for this instance of
+.B bash
+on the standard output and exit successfully.
+.PD
+.SH ARGUMENTS
+If arguments remain after option processing, and neither the
+.B \-c
+nor the
+.B \-s
+option has been supplied, the first argument is assumed to
+be the name of a file containing shell commands.
+If
+.B bash
+is invoked in this fashion, 
+.B $0
+is set to the name of the file, and the positional parameters
+are set to the remaining arguments.
+.B Bash
+reads and executes commands from this file, then exits.
+\fBBash\fP's exit status is the exit status of the last command
+executed in the script.
+If no commands are executed, the exit status is 0.
+An attempt is first made to open the file in the current directory, and,
+if no file is found, then the shell searches the directories in
+.SM
+.B PATH
+for the script.
+.SH INVOCATION
+A \fIlogin shell\fP is one whose first character of argument zero is a
+.BR \- ,
+or one started with the 
+.B \-\-login
+option.
+.PP
+An \fIinteractive\fP shell is one started without non-option arguments
+and without the
+.B \-c
+option
+whose standard input and error are
+both connected to terminals (as determined by
+.IR isatty (3)),
+or one started with the
+.B \-i
+option.
+.SM
+.B PS1
+is set and
+.B $\-
+includes
+.B i
+if
+.B bash
+is interactive,
+allowing a shell script or a startup file to test this state.
+.PP
+The following paragraphs describe how
+.B bash
+executes its startup files.
+If any of the files exist but cannot be read,
+.B bash
+reports an error.
+Tildes are expanded in file names as described below under
+.B "Tilde Expansion"
+in the
+.SM
+.B EXPANSION
+section.
+.PP
+When
+.B bash
+is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell
+with the \fB\-\-login\fP option, it first reads and
+executes commands from the file \fI/etc/profile\fP, if that
+file exists.
+After reading that file, it looks for \fI~/.bash_profile\fP,
+\fI~/.bash_login\fP, and \fI~/.profile\fP, in that order, and reads
+and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable.
+The
+.B \-\-noprofile
+option may be used when the shell is started to inhibit this behavior.
+.PP
+When a login shell exits,
+.B bash
+reads and executes commands from the file \fI~/.bash_logout\fP, if it
+exists.
+.PP
+When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started,
+.B bash
+reads and executes commands from \fI~/.bashrc\fP, if that file exists.
+This may be inhibited by using the
+.B \-\-norc
+option.
+The \fB\-\-rcfile\fP \fIfile\fP option will force
+.B bash
+to read and execute commands from \fIfile\fP instead of \fI~/.bashrc\fP.
+.PP
+When
+.B bash
+is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it
+looks for the variable
+.SM
+.B BASH_ENV
+in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the
+expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute.
+.B Bash
+behaves as if the following command were executed:
+.sp .5
+.RS
+.if t \f(CWif [ \-n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi\fP
+.if n if [ \-n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi
+.RE
+.sp .5
+but the value of the
+.SM
+.B PATH
+variable is not used to search for the file name.
+.PP
+If
+.B bash
+is invoked with the name
+.BR sh ,
+it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of
+.B sh
+as closely as possible,
+while conforming to the POSIX standard as well.
+When invoked as an interactive login shell, or a non-interactive
+shell with the \fB\-\-login\fP option, it first attempts to
+read and execute commands from
+.I /etc/profile
+and
+.IR ~/.profile ,
+in that order.
+The
+.B \-\-noprofile
+option may be used to inhibit this behavior.
+When invoked as an interactive shell with the name
+.BR sh ,
+.B bash
+looks for the variable
+.SM
+.BR ENV ,
+expands its value if it is defined, and uses the
+expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute.
+Since a shell invoked as
+.B sh
+does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup
+files, the
+.B \-\-rcfile
+option has no effect.
+A non-interactive shell invoked with the name
+.B sh
+does not attempt to read any other startup files. 
+When invoked as
+.BR sh ,
+.B bash
+enters
+.I posix
+mode after the startup files are read.
+.PP
+When
+.B bash
+is started in
+.I posix
+mode, as with the
+.B \-\-posix
+command line option, it follows the POSIX standard for startup files.
+In this mode, interactive shells expand the
+.SM
+.B ENV
+variable and commands are read and executed from the file
+whose name is the expanded value.
+No other startup files are read.
+.PP
+.B Bash
+attempts to determine when it is being run by the remote shell
+daemon, usually \fIrshd\fP.
+If
+.B bash
+determines it is being run by \fIrshd\fP, it reads and executes
+commands from \fI~/.bashrc\fP, if that file exists and is readable.
+It will not do this if invoked as \fBsh\fP.
+The
+.B \-\-norc
+option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the
+.B \-\-rcfile
+option may be used to force another file to be read, but
+\fIrshd\fP does not generally invoke the shell with those options
+or allow them to be specified.
+.PP
+If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the
+real user (group) id, and the \fB\-p\fP option is not supplied, no startup
+files are read, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, the
+.SM
+.B SHELLOPTS
+variable, if it appears in the environment, is ignored,
+and the effective user id is set to the real user id.
+If the \fB\-p\fP option is supplied at invocation, the startup behavior is
+the same, but the effective user id is not reset.
+.SH DEFINITIONS
+.PP
+The following definitions are used throughout the rest of this
+document.
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B blank 
+A space or tab.
+.TP
+.B word
+A sequence of characters considered as a single unit by the shell.
+Also known as a
+.BR token .
+.TP
+.B name
+A 
+.I word
+consisting only of alphanumeric characters and underscores, and
+beginning with an alphabetic character or an underscore.  Also
+referred to as an
+.BR identifier .
+.TP
+.B metacharacter
+A character that, when unquoted, separates words.  One of the following:
+.br
+.RS
+.PP
+.if t \fB|  &  ;  (  )  <  >  space  tab\fP
+.if n \fB|  & ; ( ) < > space tab\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+.TP
+.B control operator
+A \fItoken\fP that performs a control function.  It is one of the following
+symbols:
+.RS
+.PP
+.if t \fB\(bv\(bv  &  &&  ;  ;;  (  )  |  <newline>\fP
+.if n \fB|| & && ; ;; ( ) | <newline>\fP
+.RE
+.PD
+.SH "RESERVED WORDS"
+\fIReserved words\fP are words that have a special meaning to the shell.
+The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and either
+the first word of a simple command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL GRAMMAR
+below) or the third word of a 
+.B case 
+or
+.B for
+command:
+.if t .RS
+.PP
+.B
+.if n ! case  do done elif else esac fi for function if in select then until while { } time [[ ]]
+.if t !    case    do    done    elif    else    esac    fi    for    function    if    in    select    then    until    while    {    }    time    [[    ]]
+.if t .RE
+.SH "SHELL GRAMMAR"
+.SS Simple Commands
+.PP
+A \fIsimple command\fP is a sequence of optional variable assignments
+followed by \fBblank\fP-separated words and redirections, and
+terminated by a \fIcontrol operator\fP.  The first word
+specifies the command to be executed, and is passed as argument zero.
+The remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command.
+.PP
+The return value of a \fIsimple command\fP is its exit status, or
+128+\fIn\^\fP if the command is terminated by signal
+.IR n .
+.SS Pipelines
+.PP
+A \fIpipeline\fP is a sequence of one or more commands separated by
+the character
+.BR | .
+The format for a pipeline is:
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fBtime\fP [\fB\-p\fP]] [ ! ] \fIcommand\fP [ \fB|\fP \fIcommand2\fP ... ]
+.RE
+.PP
+The standard output of
+.I command
+is connected via a pipe to the standard input of
+.IR command2 .
+This connection is performed before any redirections specified by the
+command (see
+.SM
+.B REDIRECTION
+below).
+.PP
+The return status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last
+command, unless the \fBpipefail\fP option is enabled.
+If \fBpipefail\fP is enabled, the pipeline's return status is the
+value of the last (rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status,
+or zero if all commands exit successfully.
+If the reserved word
+.B !
+precedes a pipeline, the exit status of that pipeline is the logical
+negation of the exit status as described above.
+The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to
+terminate before returning a value.
+.PP
+If the
+.B time
+reserved word precedes a pipeline, the elapsed as well as user and
+system time consumed by its execution are reported when the pipeline
+terminates.
+The \fB\-p\fP option changes the output format to that specified by POSIX.
+The
+.SM
+.B TIMEFORMAT
+variable may be set to a format string that specifies how the timing
+information should be displayed; see the description of
+.SM
+.B TIMEFORMAT
+under
+.B "Shell Variables"
+below.
+.PP
+Each command in a pipeline is executed as a separate process (i.e., in a
+subshell).
+.SS Lists
+.PP
+A \fIlist\fP is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one
+of the operators
+.BR ; ,
+.BR & ,
+.BR && ,
+or
+.BR \(bv\(bv ,
+and optionally terminated by one of
+.BR ; ,
+.BR & ,
+or
+.BR <newline> .
+.PP
+Of these list operators,
+.B &&
+and
+.B \(bv\(bv
+have equal precedence, followed by
+.B ;
+and
+.BR &,
+which have equal precedence.
+.PP
+A sequence of one or more newlines may appear in a \fIlist\fP instead
+of a semicolon to delimit commands.
+.PP
+If a command is terminated by the control operator
+.BR & ,
+the shell executes the command in the \fIbackground\fP
+in a subshell.  The shell does not wait for the command to
+finish, and the return status is 0.  Commands separated by a
+.B ;
+are executed sequentially; the shell waits for each
+command to terminate in turn.  The return status is the
+exit status of the last command executed.
+.PP
+The control operators
+.B &&
+and
+.B \(bv\(bv
+denote AND lists and OR lists, respectively.
+An AND list has the form
+.RS
+.PP
+\fIcommand1\fP \fB&&\fP \fIcommand2\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+.I command2
+is executed if, and only if,
+.I command1
+returns an exit status of zero.
+.PP
+An OR list has the form
+.RS
+.PP
+\fIcommand1\fP \fB\(bv\(bv\fP \fIcommand2\fP
+.PP
+.RE
+.PP
+.I command2
+is executed if and only if
+.I command1
+returns a non-zero exit status.  The return status of
+AND and OR lists is the exit status of the last command
+executed in the list.
+.SS Compound Commands
+.PP
+A \fIcompound command\fP is one of the following:
+.TP
+(\fIlist\fP)
+\fIlist\fP is executed in a subshell environment (see
+.SM
+\fBCOMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT\fP
+below).
+Variable assignments and builtin
+commands that affect the shell's environment do not remain in effect
+after the command completes.  The return status is the exit status of
+\fIlist\fP.
+.TP
+{ \fIlist\fP; }
+\fIlist\fP is simply executed in the current shell environment.
+\fIlist\fP must be terminated with a newline or semicolon.
+This is known as a \fIgroup command\fP.
+The return status is the exit status of
+\fIlist\fP.
+Note that unlike the metacharacters \fB(\fP and \fB)\fP, \fB{\fP and
+\fB}\fP are \fIreserved words\fP and must occur where a reserved
+word is permitted to be recognized.  Since they do not cause a word
+break, they must be separated from \fIlist\fP by whitespace.
+.TP
+((\fIexpression\fP))
+The \fIexpression\fP is evaluated according to the rules described
+below under
+.SM
+.BR "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION" .
+If the value of the expression is non-zero, the return status is 0;
+otherwise the return status is 1.  This is exactly equivalent to
+\fBlet "\fIexpression\fP"\fR.
+.TP
+\fB[[\fP \fIexpression\fP \fB]]\fP
+Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of
+the conditional expression \fIexpression\fP.
+Expressions are composed of the primaries described below under
+.SM
+.BR "CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS" .
+Word splitting and pathname expansion are not performed on the words
+between the \fB[[\fP and \fB]]\fP; tilde expansion, parameter and
+variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process
+substitution, and quote removal are performed.
+Conditional operators such as \fB\-f\fP must be unquoted to be recognized
+as primaries.
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+When the \fB==\fP and \fB!=\fP operators are used, the string to the
+right of the operator is considered a pattern and matched according
+to the rules described below under \fBPattern Matching\fP.
+If the shell option
+.B nocasematch
+is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
+of alphabetic characters.
+The return value is 0 if the string matches or does not match
+the pattern, respectively, and 1 otherwise.
+Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force it to be matched as a
+string.
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+An additional binary operator, \fB=~\fP, is available, with the same
+precedence as \fB==\fP and \fB!=\fP.
+When it is used, the string to the right of the operator is considered
+an extended regular expression and matched accordingly (as in \fIregex\fP(3)).  
+The return value is 0 if the string matches
+the pattern, and 1 otherwise.
+If the regular expression is syntactically incorrect, the conditional
+expression's return value is 2.
+If the shell option
+.B nocasematch
+is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
+of alphabetic characters.
+Substrings matched by parenthesized subexpressions within the regular
+expression are saved in the array variable \fBBASH_REMATCH\fP.
+The element of \fBBASH_REMATCH\fP with index 0 is the portion of the string
+matching the entire regular expression.
+The element of \fBBASH_REMATCH\fP with index \fIn\fP is the portion of the
+string matching the \fIn\fPth parenthesized subexpression.
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed
+in decreasing order of precedence:
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B ( \fIexpression\fP )
+Returns the value of \fIexpression\fP.
+This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators.
+.TP
+.B ! \fIexpression\fP
+True if
+.I expression
+is false.
+.TP
+\fIexpression1\fP \fB&&\fP \fIexpression2\fP
+True if both
+.I expression1
+and
+.I expression2
+are true.
+.TP
+.if t \fIexpression1\fP \fB\(bv\(bv\fP \fIexpression2\fP
+.if n \fIexpression1\fP \fB||\fP \fIexpression2\fP
+True if either
+.I expression1
+or
+.I expression2
+is true.
+.PD
+.LP
+The \fB&&\fP and
+.if t \fB\(bv\(bv\fP
+.if n \fB||\fP
+operators do not evaluate \fIexpression2\fP if the value of
+\fIexpression1\fP is sufficient to determine the return value of
+the entire conditional expression.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBfor\fP \fIname\fP [ \fBin\fP \fIword\fP ] ; \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP ; \fBdone\fP
+The list of words following \fBin\fP is expanded, generating a list
+of items.
+The variable \fIname\fP is set to each element of this list
+in turn, and \fIlist\fP is executed each time.
+If the \fBin\fP \fIword\fP is omitted, the \fBfor\fP command executes
+\fIlist\fP once for each positional parameter that is set (see
+.SM
+.B PARAMETERS
+below).
+The return status is the exit status of the last command that executes.
+If the expansion of the items following \fBin\fP results in an empty
+list, no commands are executed, and the return status is 0.
+.TP
+\fBfor\fP (( \fIexpr1\fP ; \fIexpr2\fP ; \fIexpr3\fP )) ; \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP ; \fBdone\fP
+First, the arithmetic expression \fIexpr1\fP is evaluated according
+to the rules described below under
+.SM
+.BR "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION" .
+The arithmetic expression \fIexpr2\fP is then evaluated repeatedly
+until it evaluates to zero.
+Each time \fIexpr2\fP evaluates to a non-zero value, \fIlist\fP is
+executed and the arithmetic expression \fIexpr3\fP is evaluated.
+If any expression is omitted, it behaves as if it evaluates to 1.
+The return value is the exit status of the last command in \fIlist\fP
+that is executed, or false if any of the expressions is invalid.
+.TP
+\fBselect\fP \fIname\fP [ \fBin\fP \fIword\fP ] ; \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP ; \fBdone\fP
+The list of words following \fBin\fP is expanded, generating a list
+of items.  The set of expanded words is printed on the standard
+error, each preceded by a number.  If the \fBin\fP
+\fIword\fP is omitted, the positional parameters are printed (see
+.SM
+.B PARAMETERS
+below).  The
+.B PS3
+prompt is then displayed and a line read from the standard input.
+If the line consists of a number corresponding to one of
+the displayed words, then the value of
+.I name
+is set to that word.  If the line is empty, the words and prompt
+are displayed again.  If EOF is read, the command completes.  Any
+other value read causes
+.I name
+to be set to null.  The line read is saved in the variable
+.BR REPLY .
+The
+.I list
+is executed after each selection until a
+.B break
+command is executed.
+The exit status of
+.B select
+is the exit status of the last command executed in
+.IR list ,
+or zero if no commands were executed.
+.TP
+\fBcase\fP \fIword\fP \fBin\fP [ [(] \fIpattern\fP [ \fB|\fP \fIpattern\fP ] \
+... ) \fIlist\fP ;; ] ... \fBesac\fP
+A \fBcase\fP command first expands \fIword\fP, and tries to match
+it against each \fIpattern\fP in turn, using the same matching rules
+as for pathname expansion (see
+.B Pathname Expansion
+below).
+If the shell option
+.B nocasematch
+is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
+of alphabetic characters.
+When a match is found, the
+corresponding \fIlist\fP is executed.  After the first match, no
+subsequent matches are attempted.  The exit status is zero if no
+pattern matches.  Otherwise, it is the exit status of the
+last command executed in \fIlist\fP.
+.TP
+\fBif\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBthen\fP \fIlist;\fP \
+[ \fBelif\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBthen\fP \fIlist\fP; ] ... \
+[ \fBelse\fP \fIlist\fP; ] \fBfi\fP
+The
+.B if 
+.I list
+is executed.  If its exit status is zero, the
+\fBthen\fP \fIlist\fP is executed.  Otherwise, each \fBelif\fP
+\fIlist\fP is executed in turn, and if its exit status is zero,
+the corresponding \fBthen\fP \fIlist\fP is executed and the
+command completes.  Otherwise, the \fBelse\fP \fIlist\fP is
+executed, if present.  The exit status is the exit status of the
+last command executed, or zero if no condition tested true.
+.TP
+\fBwhile\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBdone\fP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBuntil\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP; \fBdone\fP
+.PD
+The \fBwhile\fP command continuously executes the \fBdo\fP
+\fIlist\fP as long as the last command in \fIlist\fP returns
+an exit status of zero.  The \fBuntil\fP command is identical
+to the \fBwhile\fP command, except that the test is negated;
+the
+.B do
+.I list
+is executed as long as the last command in
+.I list
+returns a non-zero exit status.
+The exit status of the \fBwhile\fP and \fBuntil\fP commands
+is the exit status
+of the last \fBdo\fP \fIlist\fP command executed, or zero if
+none was executed.
+.SS Shell Function Definitions
+.PP
+A shell function is an object that is called like a simple command and
+executes a compound command with a new set of positional parameters.
+Shell functions are declared as follows:
+.TP
+[ \fBfunction\fP ] \fIname\fP () \fIcompound\-command\fP [\fIredirection\fP]
+This defines a function named \fIname\fP.
+The reserved word \fBfunction\fP is optional.
+If the \fBfunction\fP reserved word is supplied, the parentheses are optional.
+The \fIbody\fP of the function is the compound command
+.I compound\-command 
+(see \fBCompound Commands\fP above).
+That command is usually a \fIlist\fP of commands between { and }, but
+may be any command listed under \fBCompound Commands\fP above.
+\fIcompound\-command\fP is executed whenever \fIname\fP is specified as the
+name of a simple command.
+Any redirections (see
+.SM
+.B REDIRECTION
+below) specified when a function is defined are performed
+when the function is executed.
+The exit status of a function definition is zero unless a syntax error
+occurs or a readonly function with the same name already exists.
+When executed, the exit status of a function is the exit status of the
+last command executed in the body.  (See
+.SM
+.B FUNCTIONS
+below.)
+.SH COMMENTS
+In a non-interactive shell, or an interactive shell in which the
+.B interactive_comments
+option to the
+.B shopt
+builtin is enabled (see
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below), a word beginning with
+.B #
+causes that word and all remaining characters on that line to
+be ignored.  An interactive shell without the
+.B interactive_comments
+option enabled does not allow comments.  The
+.B interactive_comments
+option is on by default in interactive shells.
+.SH QUOTING
+\fIQuoting\fP is used to remove the special meaning of certain
+characters or words to the shell.  Quoting can be used to 
+disable special treatment for special characters, to prevent
+reserved words from being recognized as such, and to prevent
+parameter expansion.
+.PP
+Each of the \fImetacharacters\fP listed above under
+.SM
+.B DEFINITIONS
+has special meaning to the shell and must be quoted if it is to
+represent itself.
+.PP
+When the command history expansion facilities are being used
+(see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY EXPANSION
+below), the
+\fIhistory expansion\fP character, usually \fB!\fP, must be quoted
+to prevent history expansion.
+.PP
+There are three quoting mechanisms: the
+.IR "escape character" ,
+single quotes, and double quotes.
+.PP
+A non-quoted backslash (\fB\e\fP) is the
+.IR "escape character" .
+It preserves the literal value of the next character that follows,
+with the exception of <newline>.  If a \fB\e\fP<newline> pair
+appears, and the backslash is not itself quoted, the \fB\e\fP<newline>
+is treated as a line continuation (that is, it is removed from the
+input stream and effectively ignored).
+.PP
+Enclosing characters in single quotes preserves the literal value
+of each character within the quotes.  A single quote may not occur
+between single quotes, even when preceded by a backslash.
+.PP
+Enclosing characters in double quotes preserves the literal value
+of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of
+.BR $ ,
+.BR ` ,
+.BR \e ,
+and, when history expansion is enabled,
+.BR ! .
+The characters
+.B $
+and
+.B `
+retain their special meaning within double quotes.  The backslash
+retains its special meaning only when followed by one of the following
+characters:
+.BR $ ,
+.BR ` ,
+\^\fB"\fP\^,
+.BR \e ,
+or
+.BR <newline> .
+A double quote may be quoted within double quotes by preceding it with
+a backslash.
+If enabled, history expansion will be performed unless an
+.B !
+appearing in double quotes is escaped using a backslash.
+The backslash preceding the
+.B !
+is not removed.
+.PP
+The special parameters
+.B *
+and
+.B @
+have special meaning when in double
+quotes (see
+.SM
+.B PARAMETERS
+below).
+.PP
+Words of the form \fB$\fP'\fIstring\fP' are treated specially.  The
+word expands to \fIstring\fP, with backslash-escaped characters replaced
+as specified by the ANSI C standard.  Backslash escape sequences, if
+present, are decoded as follows:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \ea
+alert (bell)
+.TP
+.B \eb
+backspace
+.TP
+.B \ee
+an escape character
+.TP   
+.B \ef
+form feed
+.TP  
+.B \en
+new line
+.TP     
+.B \er
+carriage return
+.TP
+.B \et
+horizontal tab
+.TP   
+.B \ev
+vertical tab
+.TP
+.B \e\e
+backslash
+.TP
+.B \e'
+single quote
+.TP   
+.B \e\fInnn\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value \fInnn\fP
+(one to three digits)
+.TP
+.B \ex\fIHH\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value \fIHH\fP
+(one or two hex digits)
+.TP
+.B \ec\fIx\fP
+a control-\fIx\fP character
+.PD
+.RE
+.LP
+The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had
+not been present.
+.PP
+A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (\fB$\fP) will cause
+the string to be translated according to the current locale.
+If the current locale is \fBC\fP or \fBPOSIX\fP, the dollar sign
+is ignored.
+If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is
+double-quoted.
+.SH PARAMETERS
+A
+.I parameter
+is an entity that stores values.
+It can be a
+.IR name ,
+a number, or one of the special characters listed below under
+.BR "Special Parameters" .
+A
+.I variable
+is a parameter denoted by a
+.IR name .
+A variable has a \fIvalue\fP and zero or more \fIattributes\fP.
+Attributes are assigned using the
+.B declare
+builtin command (see
+.B declare
+below in
+.SM
+.BR "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS" ).
+.PP
+A parameter is set if it has been assigned a value.  The null string is
+a valid value.  Once a variable is set, it may be unset only by using
+the
+.B unset
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.PP
+A
+.I variable
+may be assigned to by a statement of the form
+.RS
+.PP
+\fIname\fP=[\fIvalue\fP]
+.RE
+.PP
+If
+.I value
+is not given, the variable is assigned the null string.  All
+.I values
+undergo tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
+command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote
+removal (see
+.SM
+.B EXPANSION
+below).  If the variable has its
+.B integer
+attribute set, then
+.I value
+is evaluated as an arithmetic expression even if the $((...)) expansion is
+not used (see
+.B "Arithmetic Expansion"
+below).
+Word splitting is not performed, with the exception
+of \fB"$@"\fP as explained below under
+.BR "Special Parameters" .
+Pathname expansion is not performed.
+Assignment statements may also appear as arguments to the
+.BR alias ,
+.BR declare ,
+.BR typeset ,
+.BR export ,
+.BR readonly ,
+and
+.B local
+builtin commands.
+.PP
+In the context where an assignment statement is assigning a value
+to a shell variable or array index, the += operator can be used to
+append to or add to the variable's previous value.
+When += is applied to a variable for which the integer attribute has been
+set, \fIvalue\fP is evaluated as an arithmetic expression and added to the
+variable's current value, which is also evaluated.
+When += is applied to an array variable using compound assignment (see
+.B Arrays
+below), the
+variable's value is not unset (as it is when using =), and new values are
+appended to the array beginning at one greater than the array's maximum index.
+When applied to a string-valued variable, \fIvalue\fP is expanded and
+appended to the variable's value.
+.SS Positional Parameters
+.PP
+A
+.I positional parameter
+is a parameter denoted by one or more
+digits, other than the single digit 0.  Positional parameters are
+assigned from the shell's arguments when it is invoked,
+and may be reassigned using the
+.B set
+builtin command.  Positional parameters may not be assigned to
+with assignment statements.  The positional parameters are
+temporarily replaced when a shell function is executed (see
+.SM
+.B FUNCTIONS
+below).
+.PP
+When a positional parameter consisting of more than a single
+digit is expanded, it must be enclosed in braces (see
+.SM
+.B EXPANSION
+below).
+.SS Special Parameters
+.PP
+The shell treats several parameters specially.  These parameters may
+only be referenced; assignment to them is not allowed.
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B *
+Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one.  When the
+expansion occurs within double quotes, it expands to a single word
+with the value of each parameter separated by the first character
+of the 
+.SM
+.B IFS
+special variable.  That is, "\fB$*\fP" is equivalent
+to "\fB$1\fP\fIc\fP\fB$2\fP\fIc\fP\fB...\fP", where
+.I c
+is the first character of the value of the
+.SM
+.B IFS
+variable.  If
+.SM
+.B IFS
+is unset, the parameters are separated by spaces.
+If
+.SM
+.B IFS
+is null, the parameters are joined without intervening separators.
+.TP
+.B @
+Expands to the positional parameters, starting from one.  When the
+expansion occurs within double quotes, each parameter expands to a
+separate word.  That is, "\fB$@\fP" is equivalent to
+"\fB$1\fP" "\fB$2\fP" ...
+If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of
+the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original
+word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last
+part of the original word.
+When there are no positional parameters, "\fB$@\fP" and 
+.B $@
+expand to nothing (i.e., they are removed).
+.TP
+.B #
+Expands to the number of positional parameters in decimal.
+.TP
+.B ?
+Expands to the status of the most recently executed foreground
+pipeline.
+.TP
+.B \-
+Expands to the current option flags as specified upon invocation, 
+by the
+.B set
+builtin command, or those set by the shell itself
+(such as the
+.B \-i
+option).
+.TP
+.B $
+Expands to the process ID of the shell.  In a () subshell, it
+expands to the process ID of the current shell, not the
+subshell.
+.TP
+.B !
+Expands to the process ID of the most recently executed background
+(asynchronous) command.
+.TP
+.B 0
+Expands to the name of the shell or shell script.  This is set at
+shell initialization.  If
+.B bash
+is invoked with a file of commands,
+.B $0
+is set to the name of that file.  If
+.B bash
+is started with the
+.B \-c
+option, then
+.B $0
+is set to the first argument after the string to be
+executed, if one is present.  Otherwise, it is set
+to the file name used to invoke
+.BR bash ,
+as given by argument zero.
+.TP
+.B _
+At shell startup, set to the absolute pathname used to invoke the
+shell or shell script being executed as passed in the environment
+or argument list.
+Subsequently, expands to the last argument to the previous command,
+after expansion.
+Also set to the full pathname used to invoke each command executed
+and placed in the environment exported to that command.
+When checking mail, this parameter holds the name of the mail file
+currently being checked.
+.PD
+.SS Shell Variables
+.PP
+The following variables are set by the shell:
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B BASH
+Expands to the full file name used to invoke this instance of
+.BR bash .
+.TP
+.B BASH_ARGC
+An array variable whose values are the number of parameters in each
+frame of the current bash execution call stack.
+The number of
+parameters to the current subroutine (shell function or script executed
+with \fB.\fP or \fBsource\fP) is at the top of the stack.
+When a subroutine is executed, the number of parameters passed is pushed onto
+\fBBASH_ARGC\fP.
+The shell sets \fBBASH_ARGC\fP only when in extended debugging mode
+(see the description of the
+.B extdebug
+option to the
+.B shopt
+builtin below)
+.TP
+.B BASH_ARGV
+An array variable containing all of the parameters in the current bash
+execution call stack.  The final parameter of the last subroutine call
+is at the top of the stack; the first parameter of the initial call is
+at the bottom.  When a subroutine is executed, the parameters supplied
+are pushed onto \fBBASH_ARGV\fP.
+The shell sets \fBBASH_ARGV\fP only when in extended debugging mode
+(see the description of the
+.B extdebug
+option to the
+.B shopt
+builtin below)
+.TP
+.B BASH_COMMAND
+The command currently being executed or about to be executed, unless the
+shell is executing a command as the result of a trap,
+in which case it is the command executing at the time of the trap.
+.TP
+.B BASH_EXECUTION_STRING
+The command argument to the \fB\-c\fP invocation option.
+.TP
+.B BASH_LINENO
+An array variable whose members are the line numbers in source files
+corresponding to each member of \fBFUNCNAME\fP.
+\fB${BASH_LINENO[\fP\fI$i\fP\fB]}\fP is the line number in the source
+file where \fB${FUNCNAME[\fP\fI$ifP\fB]}\fP was called.
+The corresponding source file name is \fB${BASH_SOURCE[\fP\fI$i\fP\fB]}\fB.
+Use \fBLINENO\fP to obtain the current line number.
+.TP
+.B BASH_REMATCH
+An array variable whose members are assigned by the \fB=~\fP binary
+operator to the \fB[[\fP conditional command.
+The element with index 0 is the portion of the string
+matching the entire regular expression.
+The element with index \fIn\fP is the portion of the
+string matching the \fIn\fPth parenthesized subexpression.
+This variable is read-only.
+.TP
+.B BASH_SOURCE
+An array variable whose members are the source filenames corresponding
+to the elements in the \fBFUNCNAME\fP array variable.
+.TP
+.B BASH_SUBSHELL
+Incremented by one each time a subshell or subshell environment is spawned.
+The initial value is 0.
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO
+A readonly array variable whose members hold version information for
+this instance of
+.BR bash .
+The values assigned to the array members are as follows:
+.sp .5
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP 24
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR0\fP]
+The major version number (the \fIrelease\fP).
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR1\fP]
+The minor version number (the \fIversion\fP).
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR2\fP]
+The patch level.
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR3\fP]
+The build version.
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR4\fP]
+The release status (e.g., \fIbeta1\fP).
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSINFO[\fR5\fP]
+The value of \fBMACHTYPE\fP.
+.PD
+.RE
+.TP
+.B BASH_VERSION
+Expands to a string describing the version of this instance of
+.BR bash .
+.TP
+.B COMP_CWORD
+An index into \fB${COMP_WORDS}\fP of the word containing the current
+cursor position.
+This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the
+programmable completion facilities (see \fBProgrammable Completion\fP
+below).
+.TP
+.B COMP_LINE
+The current command line.
+This variable is available only in shell functions and external
+commands invoked by the
+programmable completion facilities (see \fBProgrammable Completion\fP
+below).
+.TP
+.B COMP_POINT
+The index of the current cursor position relative to the beginning of
+the current command.
+If the current cursor position is at the end of the current command,
+the value of this variable is equal to \fB${#COMP_LINE}\fP.
+This variable is available only in shell functions and external
+commands invoked by the
+programmable completion facilities (see \fBProgrammable Completion\fP
+below).
+.TP
+.B COMP_WORDBREAKS
+The set of characters that the Readline library treats as word
+separators when performing word completion.
+If
+.SM
+.B COMP_WORDBREAKS
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B COMP_WORDS
+An array variable (see \fBArrays\fP below) consisting of the individual
+words in the current command line.
+This variable is available only in shell functions invoked by the
+programmable completion facilities (see \fBProgrammable Completion\fP
+below).
+.TP
+.B DIRSTACK
+An array variable (see
+.B Arrays
+below) containing the current contents of the directory stack.
+Directories appear in the stack in the order they are displayed by the
+.B dirs
+builtin.
+Assigning to members of this array variable may be used to modify
+directories already in the stack, but the
+.B pushd
+and
+.B popd
+builtins must be used to add and remove directories.
+Assignment to this variable will not change the current directory.
+If
+.SM
+.B DIRSTACK
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B EUID
+Expands to the effective user ID of the current user, initialized at
+shell startup.  This variable is readonly.
+.TP
+.B FUNCNAME
+An array variable containing the names of all shell functions
+currently in the execution call stack.
+The element with index 0 is the name of any currently-executing
+shell function.
+The bottom-most element is "main".
+This variable exists only when a shell function is executing.
+Assignments to
+.SM
+.B FUNCNAME
+have no effect and return an error status.
+If
+.SM
+.B FUNCNAME
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B GROUPS
+An array variable containing the list of groups of which the current
+user is a member.
+Assignments to    
+.SM
+.B GROUPS
+have no effect and return an error status.
+If
+.SM
+.B GROUPS
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B HISTCMD
+The history number, or index in the history list, of the current
+command.
+If
+.SM
+.B HISTCMD
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B HOSTNAME
+Automatically set to the name of the current host.
+.TP
+.B HOSTTYPE
+Automatically set to a string that uniquely
+describes the type of machine on which
+.B bash
+is executing.
+The default is system-dependent.
+.TP
+.B LINENO
+Each time this parameter is referenced, the shell substitutes
+a decimal number representing the current sequential line number
+(starting with 1) within a script or function.  When not in a
+script or function, the value substituted is not guaranteed to
+be meaningful.
+If
+.SM
+.B LINENO
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B MACHTYPE
+Automatically set to a string that fully describes the system
+type on which
+.B bash
+is executing, in the standard GNU \fIcpu-company-system\fP format.
+The default is system-dependent.
+.TP
+.B OLDPWD
+The previous working directory as set by the
+.B cd
+command.
+.TP
+.B OPTARG
+The value of the last option argument processed by the
+.B getopts
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.TP
+.B OPTIND
+The index of the next argument to be processed by the
+.B getopts
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.TP
+.B OSTYPE
+Automatically set to a string that
+describes the operating system on which
+.B bash
+is executing.
+The default is system-dependent.
+.TP
+.B PIPESTATUS
+An array variable (see
+.B Arrays
+below) containing a list of exit status values from the processes
+in the most-recently-executed foreground pipeline (which may
+contain only a single command).
+.TP
+.B PPID
+The process ID of the shell's parent.  This variable is readonly.
+.TP
+.B PWD
+The current working directory as set by the
+.B cd
+command.
+.TP
+.B RANDOM
+Each time this parameter is referenced, a random integer between
+0 and 32767 is
+generated.  The sequence of random numbers may be initialized by assigning
+a value to
+.SM
+.BR RANDOM .
+If
+.SM
+.B RANDOM
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B REPLY
+Set to the line of input read by the
+.B read
+builtin command when no arguments are supplied.
+.TP
+.B SECONDS
+Each time this parameter is
+referenced, the number of seconds since shell invocation is returned.  If a
+value is assigned to 
+.SM
+.BR SECONDS ,
+the value returned upon subsequent
+references is
+the number of seconds since the assignment plus the value assigned.
+If
+.SM
+.B SECONDS
+is unset, it loses its special properties, even if it is
+subsequently reset.
+.TP
+.B SHELLOPTS
+A colon-separated list of enabled shell options.  Each word in
+the list is a valid argument for the
+.B \-o
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below).  The options appearing in
+.SM
+.B SHELLOPTS
+are those reported as
+.I on
+by \fBset \-o\fP.
+If this variable is in the environment when
+.B bash
+starts up, each shell option in the list will be enabled before
+reading any startup files.
+This variable is read-only.
+.TP
+.B SHLVL
+Incremented by one each time an instance of
+.B bash
+is started.
+.TP
+.B UID
+Expands to the user ID of the current user, initialized at shell startup.
+This variable is readonly.
+.PD
+.PP
+The following variables are used by the shell.  In some cases,
+.B bash
+assigns a default value to a variable; these cases are noted
+below.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B BASH_ENV
+If this parameter is set when \fBbash\fP is executing a shell script,
+its value is interpreted as a filename containing commands to
+initialize the shell, as in
+.IR ~/.bashrc .
+The value of
+.SM
+.B BASH_ENV
+is subjected to parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic
+expansion before being interpreted as a file name.
+.SM
+.B PATH
+is not used to search for the resultant file name.
+.TP
+.B CDPATH
+The search path for the
+.B cd
+command.
+This is a colon-separated list of directories in which the shell looks
+for destination directories specified by the
+.B cd
+command.
+A sample value is
+.if t \f(CW".:~:/usr"\fP.
+.if n ".:~:/usr".
+.TP
+.B COLUMNS
+Used by the \fBselect\fP builtin command to determine the terminal width
+when printing selection lists.  Automatically set upon receipt of a SIGWINCH.
+.TP
+.B COMPREPLY
+An array variable from which \fBbash\fP reads the possible completions
+generated by a shell function invoked by the programmable completion
+facility (see \fBProgrammable Completion\fP below).
+.TP
+.B EMACS
+If \fBbash\fP finds this variable in the environment when the shell starts
+with value
+.if t \f(CWt\fP,
+.if n "t",
+it assumes that the shell is running in an emacs shell buffer and disables
+line editing.
+.TP
+.B FCEDIT
+The default editor for the
+.B fc
+builtin command.
+.TP
+.B FIGNORE
+A colon-separated list of suffixes to ignore when performing
+filename completion (see
+.SM
+.B READLINE
+below).
+A filename whose suffix matches one of the entries in 
+.SM
+.B FIGNORE
+is excluded from the list of matched filenames.
+A sample value is
+.if t \f(CW".o:~"\fP.
+.if n ".o:~".
+.TP
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+A colon-separated list of patterns defining the set of filenames to
+be ignored by pathname expansion.
+If a filename matched by a pathname expansion pattern also matches one
+of the patterns in
+.SM
+.BR GLOBIGNORE ,
+it is removed from the list of matches.
+.TP
+.B HISTCONTROL
+A colon-separated list of values controlling how commands are saved on
+the history list.
+If the list of values includes
+.IR ignorespace ,
+lines which begin with a
+.B space
+character are not saved in the history list.
+A value of 
+.I ignoredups
+causes lines matching the previous history entry to not be saved.
+A value of
+.I ignoreboth
+is shorthand for \fIignorespace\fP and \fIignoredups\fP.
+A value of
+.IR erasedups
+causes all previous lines matching the current line to be removed from
+the history list before that line is saved.
+Any value not in the above list is ignored.
+If \fBHISTCONTROL\fP is unset, or does not include a valid value,
+all lines read by the shell parser are saved on the history list,
+subject to the value of
+.BR HISTIGNORE .
+The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are
+not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of
+.BR HISTCONTROL .
+.TP
+.B HISTFILE
+The name of the file in which command history is saved (see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY
+below).  The default value is \fI~/.bash_history\fP.  If unset, the
+command history is not saved when an interactive shell exits.
+.TP
+.B HISTFILESIZE
+The maximum number of lines contained in the history file.  When this
+variable is assigned a value, the history file is truncated, if
+necessary, to contain no more than that number of lines.  The default
+value is 500.  The history file is also truncated to this size after
+writing it when an interactive shell exits.
+.TP
+.B HISTIGNORE
+A colon-separated list of patterns used to decide which command lines
+should be saved on the history list.  Each pattern is anchored at the
+beginning of the line and must match the complete line (no implicit
+`\fB*\fP' is appended).  Each pattern is tested against the line
+after the checks specified by
+.B HISTCONTROL
+are applied.
+In addition to the normal shell pattern matching characters, `\fB&\fP'
+matches the previous history line.  `\fB&\fP' may be escaped using a
+backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match.
+The second and subsequent lines of a multi-line compound command are
+not tested, and are added to the history regardless of the value of
+.BR HISTIGNORE .
+.TP
+.B HISTSIZE
+The number of commands to remember in the command history (see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY
+below).  The default value is 500.
+.TP
+.B HISTTIMEFORMAT
+If this variable is set and not null, its value is used as a format string
+for \fIstrftime\fP(3) to print the time stamp associated with each history
+entry displayed by the \fBhistory\fP builtin.
+If this variable is set, time stamps are written to the history file so
+they may be preserved across shell sessions.
+.TP
+.B HOME
+The home directory of the current user; the default argument for the
+\fBcd\fP builtin command.
+The value of this variable is also used when performing tilde expansion.
+.TP
+.B HOSTFILE
+Contains the name of a file in the same format as
+.FN /etc/hosts
+that should be read when the shell needs to complete a
+hostname.
+The list of possible hostname completions may be changed while the
+shell is running;
+the next time hostname completion is attempted after the
+value is changed,
+.B bash
+adds the contents of the new file to the existing list.
+If
+.SM
+.B HOSTFILE
+is set, but has no value, \fBbash\fP attempts to read
+.FN /etc/hosts
+to obtain the list of possible hostname completions.
+When
+.SM
+.B HOSTFILE
+is unset, the hostname list is cleared.
+.TP
+.B IFS
+The
+.I Internal Field Separator
+that is used
+for word splitting after expansion and to
+split lines into words with the
+.B read
+builtin command.  The default value is
+``<space><tab><newline>''.
+.TP
+.B IGNOREEOF
+Controls the
+action of an interactive shell on receipt of an
+.SM
+.B EOF
+character as the sole input.  If set, the value is the number of
+consecutive
+.SM
+.B EOF
+characters which must be
+typed as the first characters on an input line before
+.B bash
+exits.  If the variable exists but does not have a numeric value, or
+has no value, the default value is 10.  If it does not exist,
+.SM
+.B EOF
+signifies the end of input to the shell.
+.TP
+.B INPUTRC
+The filename for the
+.B readline
+startup file, overriding the default of
+.FN ~/.inputrc
+(see
+.SM
+.B READLINE
+below).
+.TP
+.B LANG
+Used to determine the locale category for any category not specifically
+selected with a variable starting with \fBLC_\fP.
+.TP
+.B LC_ALL
+This variable overrides the value of \fBLANG\fP and any other
+\fBLC_\fP variable specifying a locale category.
+.TP
+.B LC_COLLATE
+This variable determines the collation order used when sorting the
+results of pathname expansion, and determines the behavior of range
+expressions, equivalence classes, and collating sequences within
+pathname expansion and pattern matching.
+.TP
+.B LC_CTYPE
+This variable determines the interpretation of characters and the
+behavior of character classes within pathname expansion and pattern
+matching.
+.TP
+.B LC_MESSAGES
+This variable determines the locale used to translate double-quoted
+strings preceded by a \fB$\fP.
+.TP
+.B LC_NUMERIC
+This variable determines the locale category used for number formatting.
+.TP
+.B LINES
+Used by the \fBselect\fP builtin command to determine the column length
+for printing selection lists.  Automatically set upon receipt of a SIGWINCH.
+.TP
+.B MAIL
+If this parameter is set to a file name and the
+.SM
+.B MAILPATH
+variable is not set,
+.B bash
+informs the user of the arrival of mail in the specified file.
+.TP
+.B MAILCHECK
+Specifies how
+often (in seconds)
+.B bash
+checks for mail.  The default is 60 seconds.  When it is time to check
+for mail, the shell does so before displaying the primary prompt.
+If this variable is unset, or set to a value that is not a number
+greater than or equal to zero, the shell disables mail checking.
+.TP
+.B MAILPATH
+A colon-separated list of file names to be checked for mail. 
+The message to be printed when mail arrives in a particular file
+may be specified by separating the file name from the message with a `?'.
+When used in the text of the message, \fB$_\fP expands to the name of
+the current mailfile. 
+Example:
+.RS
+.PP
+\fBMAILPATH\fP='/var/mail/bfox?"You have mail":~/shell\-mail?"$_ has mail!"'
+.PP
+.B Bash
+supplies a default value for this variable, but the location of the user
+mail files that it uses is system dependent (e.g., /var/mail/\fB$USER\fP).
+.RE
+.TP
+.B OPTERR
+If set to the value 1,
+.B bash
+displays error messages generated by the
+.B getopts
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.SM
+.B OPTERR
+is initialized to 1 each time the shell is invoked or a shell
+script is executed.
+.TP
+.B PATH
+The search path for commands.  It
+is a colon-separated list of directories in which
+the shell looks for commands (see
+.SM
+.B COMMAND EXECUTION
+below).
+A zero-length (null) directory name in the value of \fBPATH\fP indicates the
+current directory.
+A null directory name may appear as two adjacent colons, or as an initial
+or trailing colon.
+The default path is system-dependent,
+and is set by the administrator who installs
+.BR bash .
+A common value is
+.if t \f(CW/usr/gnu/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin\fP.
+.if n ``/usr/gnu/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/ucb:/bin:/usr/bin''.
+.TP
+.B POSIXLY_CORRECT
+If this variable is in the environment when \fBbash\fP starts, the shell
+enters \fIposix mode\fP before reading the startup files, as if the
+.B \-\-posix
+invocation option had been supplied.  If it is set while the shell is
+running, \fBbash\fP enables \fIposix mode\fP, as if the command
+.if t \f(CWset -o posix\fP
+.if n \fIset -o posix\fP
+had been executed.
+.TP
+.B PROMPT_COMMAND
+If set, the value is executed as a command prior to issuing each primary
+prompt.
+.TP
+.B PS1
+The value of this parameter is expanded (see
+.SM
+.B PROMPTING
+below) and used as the primary prompt string.  The default value is
+``\fB\es\-\ev\e$ \fP''.
+.TP
+.B PS2
+The value of this parameter is expanded as with
+.B PS1
+and used as the secondary prompt string.  The default is
+``\fB> \fP''.
+.TP
+.B PS3
+The value of this parameter is used as the prompt for the
+.B select
+command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL GRAMMAR
+above).
+.TP
+.B PS4
+The value of this parameter is expanded as with
+.B PS1
+and the value is printed before each command
+.B bash
+displays during an execution trace.  The first character of
+.SM
+.B PS4
+is replicated multiple times, as necessary, to indicate multiple
+levels of indirection.  The default is ``\fB+ \fP''.
+.TP
+.B SHELL
+The full pathname to the shell is kept in this environment variable.
+If it is not set when the shell starts,
+.B bash
+assigns to it the full pathname of the current user's login shell.
+.TP
+.B TIMEFORMAT
+The value of this parameter is used as a format string specifying
+how the timing information for pipelines prefixed with the
+.B time
+reserved word should be displayed.
+The \fB%\fP character introduces an escape sequence that is
+expanded to a time value or other information.
+The escape sequences and their meanings are as follows; the
+braces denote optional portions.
+.sp .5
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP 10
+.B %%
+A literal \fB%\fP.
+.TP
+.B %[\fIp\fP][l]R
+The elapsed time in seconds.
+.TP
+.B %[\fIp\fP][l]U
+The number of CPU seconds spent in user mode.
+.TP
+.B %[\fIp\fP][l]S
+The number of CPU seconds spent in system mode.
+.TP
+.B %P
+The CPU percentage, computed as (%U + %S) / %R.
+.PD
+.RE
+.IP
+The optional \fIp\fP is a digit specifying the \fIprecision\fP,
+the number of fractional digits after a decimal point.
+A value of 0 causes no decimal point or fraction to be output.
+At most three places after the decimal point may be specified;
+values of \fIp\fP greater than 3 are changed to 3.
+If \fIp\fP is not specified, the value 3 is used.
+.IP
+The optional \fBl\fP specifies a longer format, including
+minutes, of the form \fIMM\fPm\fISS\fP.\fIFF\fPs.
+The value of \fIp\fP determines whether or not the fraction is
+included.
+.IP
+If this variable is not set, \fBbash\fP acts as if it had the
+value \fB$'\enreal\et%3lR\enuser\et%3lU\ensys\t%3lS'\fP.
+If the value is null, no timing information is displayed.
+A trailing newline is added when the format string is displayed.
+.TP
+.B TMOUT
+If set to a value greater than zero, \fBTMOUT\fP is treated as the
+default timeout for the \fBread\fP builtin.
+The \fBselect\fP command terminates if input does not arrive
+after \fBTMOUT\fP seconds when input is coming from a terminal.
+In an interactive shell, the value is interpreted as the
+number of seconds to wait for input after issuing the primary prompt.
+.B Bash
+terminates after waiting for that number of seconds if input does
+not arrive.
+.TP
+.B TMPDIR
+If set, \fBBash\fP uses its value as the name of a directory in which
+\fBBash\fP creates temporary files for the shell's use.
+.TP
+.B auto_resume
+This variable controls how the shell interacts with the user and
+job control.  If this variable is set, single word simple
+commands without redirections are treated as candidates for resumption
+of an existing stopped job.  There is no ambiguity allowed; if there is
+more than one job beginning with the string typed, the job most recently
+accessed is selected.  The
+.I name
+of a stopped job, in this context, is the command line used to
+start it.
+If set to the value
+.IR exact ,
+the string supplied must match the name of a stopped job exactly;
+if set to
+.IR substring ,
+the string supplied needs to match a substring of the name of a
+stopped job.  The
+.I substring
+value provides functionality analogous to the
+.B %?
+job identifier (see
+.SM
+.B JOB CONTROL
+below).  If set to any other value, the supplied string must
+be a prefix of a stopped job's name; this provides functionality
+analogous to the \fB%\fP\fIstring\fP job identifier.
+.TP
+.B histchars
+The two or three characters which control history expansion
+and tokenization (see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY EXPANSION
+below).  The first character is the \fIhistory expansion\fP character,
+the character which signals the start of a history
+expansion, normally `\fB!\fP'.
+The second character is the \fIquick substitution\fP
+character, which is used as shorthand for re-running the previous
+command entered, substituting one string for another in the command.
+The default is `\fB^\fP'.
+The optional third character is the character
+which indicates that the remainder of the line is a comment when found
+as the first character of a word, normally `\fB#\fP'.  The history
+comment character causes history substitution to be skipped for the
+remaining words on the line.  It does not necessarily cause the shell
+parser to treat the rest of the line as a comment.
+.PD
+.SS Arrays
+.B Bash
+provides one-dimensional array variables.  Any variable may be used as
+an array; the
+.B declare
+builtin will explicitly declare an array.  There is no maximum
+limit on the size of an array, nor any requirement that members
+be indexed or assigned contiguously.  Arrays are indexed using
+integers and are zero-based.
+.PP
+An array is created automatically if any variable is assigned to using
+the syntax \fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]=\fIvalue\fP.  The
+.I subscript
+is treated as an arithmetic expression that must evaluate to a number
+greater than or equal to zero.  To explicitly declare an array, use
+.B declare \-a \fIname\fP
+(see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.B declare \-a \fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]
+is also accepted; the \fIsubscript\fP is ignored.  Attributes may be
+specified for an array variable using the
+.B declare
+and
+.B readonly
+builtins.  Each attribute applies to all members of an array.
+.PP
+Arrays are assigned to using compound assignments of the form
+\fIname\fP=\fB(\fPvalue\fI1\fP ... value\fIn\fP\fB)\fP, where each
+\fIvalue\fP is of the form [\fIsubscript\fP]=\fIstring\fP.  Only
+\fIstring\fP is required.  If
+the optional brackets and subscript are supplied, that index is assigned to;
+otherwise the index of the element assigned is the last index assigned
+to by the statement plus one.  Indexing starts at zero.
+This syntax is also accepted by the
+.B declare
+builtin.  Individual array elements may be assigned to using the
+\fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]=\fIvalue\fP syntax introduced above.
+.PP
+Any element of an array may be referenced using
+${\fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]}.  The braces are required to avoid
+conflicts with pathname expansion.  If
+\fIsubscript\fP is \fB@\fP or \fB*\fP, the word expands to
+all members of \fIname\fP.  These subscripts differ only when the
+word appears within double quotes.  If the word is double-quoted,
+${\fIname\fP[*]} expands to a single
+word with the value of each array member separated by the first
+character of the
+.SM
+.B IFS
+special variable, and ${\fIname\fP[@]} expands each element of
+\fIname\fP to a separate word.  When there are no array members,
+${\fIname\fP[@]} expands to nothing.
+If the double-quoted expansion occurs within a word, the expansion of
+the first parameter is joined with the beginning part of the original
+word, and the expansion of the last parameter is joined with the last
+part of the original word.
+This is analogous to the expansion
+of the special parameters \fB*\fP and \fB@\fP (see
+.B Special Parameters
+above).  ${#\fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]} expands to the length of
+${\fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]}.  If \fIsubscript\fP is \fB*\fP or
+\fB@\fP, the expansion is the number of elements in the array.
+Referencing an array variable without a subscript is equivalent to
+referencing element zero.
+.PP
+The
+.B unset
+builtin is used to destroy arrays.  \fBunset\fP \fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP]
+destroys the array element at index \fIsubscript\fP.
+Care must be taken to avoid unwanted side effects caused by filename
+generation.
+\fBunset\fP \fIname\fP, where \fIname\fP is an array, or
+\fBunset\fP \fIname\fP[\fIsubscript\fP], where
+\fIsubscript\fP is \fB*\fP or \fB@\fP, removes the entire array.
+.PP
+The
+.BR declare ,
+.BR local ,
+and
+.B readonly
+builtins each accept a
+.B \-a
+option to specify an array.  The
+.B read
+builtin accepts a
+.B \-a
+option to assign a list of words read from the standard input
+to an array.  The
+.B set
+and
+.B declare
+builtins display array values in a way that allows them to be
+reused as assignments.
+.SH EXPANSION
+Expansion is performed on the command line after it has been split into
+words.  There are seven kinds of expansion performed:
+.IR "brace expansion" ,
+.IR "tilde expansion" ,
+.IR "parameter and variable expansion" ,
+.IR "command substitution" ,
+.IR "arithmetic expansion" ,
+.IR "word splitting" ,
+and
+.IR "pathname expansion" .
+.PP
+The order of expansions is: brace expansion, tilde expansion,
+parameter, variable and arithmetic expansion and
+command substitution
+(done in a left-to-right fashion), word splitting, and pathname
+expansion.
+.PP
+On systems that can support it, there is an additional expansion
+available: \fIprocess substitution\fP.
+.PP
+Only brace expansion, word splitting, and pathname expansion
+can change the number of words of the expansion; other expansions
+expand a single word to a single word.
+The only exceptions to this are the expansions of
+"\fB$@\fP" and "\fB${\fP\fIname\fP\fB[@]}\fP"
+as explained above (see
+.SM
+.BR PARAMETERS ).
+.SS Brace Expansion
+.PP
+.I "Brace expansion"
+is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings
+may be generated.  This mechanism is similar to
+\fIpathname expansion\fP, but the filenames generated
+need not exist.  Patterns to be brace expanded take
+the form of an optional
+.IR preamble ,
+followed by either a series of comma-separated strings or
+a sequence expression between a pair of braces, followed by
+an optional
+.IR postscript .
+The preamble is prefixed to each string contained
+within the braces, and the postscript is then appended
+to each resulting string, expanding left to right.
+.PP
+Brace expansions may be nested.  The results of each expanded
+string are not sorted; left to right order is preserved.
+For example, a\fB{\fPd,c,b\fB}\fPe expands into `ade ace abe'.
+.PP
+A sequence expression takes the form \fB{\fP\fIx\fP\fB..\fP\fIy\fP\fB}\fP,
+where \fIx\fP and \fIy\fP are either integers or single characters.
+When integers are supplied, the expression expands to each number between
+\fIx\fP and \fIy\fP, inclusive.
+When characters are supplied, the expression expands to each character
+lexicographically between \fIx\fP and \fIy\fP, inclusive.  Note that
+both \fIx\fP and \fIy\fP must be of the same type.
+.PP
+Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions,
+and any characters special to other expansions are preserved
+in the result.  It is strictly textual.
+.B Bash
+does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the
+expansion or the text between the braces.
+.PP
+A correctly-formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening
+and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma or a valid
+sequence expression.
+Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged.
+A \fB{\fP or \fB,\fP may be quoted with a backslash to prevent its
+being considered part of a brace expression.
+To avoid conflicts with parameter expansion, the string \fB${\fP
+is not considered eligible for brace expansion.
+.PP
+This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common
+prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the
+above example:
+.RS
+.PP
+mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs}
+.RE
+or
+.RS
+chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}}
+.RE
+.PP
+Brace expansion introduces a slight incompatibility with
+historical versions of
+.BR sh .
+.B sh
+does not treat opening or closing braces specially when they
+appear as part of a word, and preserves them in the output.
+.B Bash
+removes braces from words as a consequence of brace
+expansion.  For example, a word entered to
+.B sh
+as \fIfile{1,2}\fP
+appears identically in the output.  The same word is
+output as
+.I file1 file2
+after expansion by
+.BR bash .
+If strict compatibility with
+.B sh
+is desired, start
+.B bash
+with the
+.B +B 
+option or disable brace expansion with the
+.B +B
+option to the
+.B set
+command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.SS Tilde Expansion
+.PP
+If a word begins with an unquoted tilde character (`\fB~\fP'), all of
+the characters preceding the first unquoted slash (or all characters,
+if there is no unquoted slash) are considered a \fItilde-prefix\fP.
+If none of the characters in the tilde-prefix are quoted, the
+characters in the tilde-prefix following the tilde are treated as a
+possible \fIlogin name\fP.
+If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the
+value of the shell parameter
+.SM
+.BR HOME .
+If
+.SM
+.B HOME
+is unset, the home directory of the user executing the shell is
+substituted instead.
+Otherwise, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the home directory
+associated with the specified login name.
+.PP
+If the tilde-prefix is a `~+', the value of the shell variable
+.SM
+.B PWD
+replaces the tilde-prefix.
+If the tilde-prefix is a `~\-', the value of the shell variable
+.SM
+.BR OLDPWD ,
+if it is set, is substituted.
+If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist
+of a number \fIN\fP, optionally prefixed
+by a `+' or a `\-', the tilde-prefix is replaced with the corresponding
+element from the directory stack, as it would be displayed by the
+.B dirs
+builtin invoked with the tilde-prefix as an argument.
+If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a
+number without a leading `+' or `\-', `+' is assumed.
+.PP
+If the login name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word
+is unchanged.
+.PP
+Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted tilde-prefixes immediately
+following a
+.B :
+or the first
+.BR = .
+In these cases, tilde expansion is also performed.
+Consequently, one may use file names with tildes in assignments to
+.SM
+.BR PATH ,
+.SM
+.BR MAILPATH ,
+and
+.SM
+.BR CDPATH ,
+and the shell assigns the expanded value.
+.SS Parameter Expansion
+.PP
+The `\fB$\fP' character introduces parameter expansion,
+command substitution, or arithmetic expansion.  The parameter name
+or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which
+are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from
+characters immediately following it which could be
+interpreted as part of the name.
+.PP
+When braces are used, the matching ending brace is the first `\fB}\fP'
+not escaped by a backslash or within a quoted string, and not within an
+embedded arithmetic expansion, command substitution, or parameter
+expansion.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP}
+The value of \fIparameter\fP is substituted.  The braces are required
+when
+.I parameter
+is a positional parameter with more than one digit,
+or when
+.I parameter
+is followed by a character which is not to be
+interpreted as part of its name.
+.PD
+.PP
+If the first character of \fIparameter\fP is an exclamation point,
+a level of variable indirection is introduced.
+\fBBash\fP uses the value of the variable formed from the rest of
+\fIparameter\fP as the name of the variable; this variable is then
+expanded and that value is used in the rest of the substitution, rather
+than the value of \fIparameter\fP itself.
+This is known as \fIindirect expansion\fP.
+The exceptions to this are the expansions of ${!\fIprefix\fP*} and
+${\fB!\fP\fIname\fP[\fI@\fP]} described below.
+The exclamation point must immediately follow the left brace in order to
+introduce indirection.
+.PP
+In each of the cases below, \fIword\fP is subject to tilde expansion,
+parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.
+When not performing substring expansion, \fBbash\fP tests for a parameter
+that is unset or null; omitting the colon results in a test only for a
+parameter that is unset.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:\-\fP\fIword\fP}
+\fBUse Default Values\fP.  If
+.I parameter
+is unset or null, the expansion of
+.I word
+is substituted.  Otherwise, the value of
+.I parameter
+is substituted.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:=\fP\fIword\fP}
+\fBAssign Default Values\fP.
+If
+.I parameter
+is unset or null, the expansion of
+.I word
+is assigned to
+.IR parameter .
+The value of
+.I parameter
+is then substituted.  Positional parameters and special parameters may
+not be assigned to in this way.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:?\fP\fIword\fP}
+\fBDisplay Error if Null or Unset\fP.
+If
+.I parameter
+is null or unset, the expansion of \fIword\fP (or a message to that effect
+if
+.I word
+is not present) is written to the standard error and the shell, if it
+is not interactive, exits.  Otherwise, the value of \fIparameter\fP is
+substituted.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:+\fP\fIword\fP}
+\fBUse Alternate Value\fP.
+If
+.I parameter
+is null or unset, nothing is substituted, otherwise the expansion of
+.I word
+is substituted.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:\fP\fIoffset\fP}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB:\fP\fIoffset\fP\fB:\fP\fIlength\fP}
+.PD
+\fBSubstring Expansion.\fP
+Expands to up to \fIlength\fP characters of \fIparameter\fP
+starting at the character specified by \fIoffset\fP.
+If \fIlength\fP is omitted, expands to the substring of
+\fIparameter\fP starting at the character specified by \fIoffset\fP.
+\fIlength\fP and \fIoffset\fP are arithmetic expressions (see
+.SM
+.B
+ARITHMETIC EVALUATION
+below).
+\fIlength\fP must evaluate to a number greater than or equal to zero.
+If \fIoffset\fP evaluates to a number less than zero, the value
+is used as an offset from the end of the value of \fIparameter\fP.
+If \fIparameter\fP is \fB@\fP, the result is \fIlength\fP positional
+parameters beginning at \fIoffset\fP.
+If \fIparameter\fP is an array name indexed by @ or *,
+the result is the \fIlength\fP
+members of the array beginning with ${\fIparameter\fP[\fIoffset\fP]}.
+A negative \fIoffset\fP is taken relative to one greater than the maximum
+index of the specified array.
+Note that a negative offset must be separated from the colon by at least
+one space to avoid being confused with the :- expansion.
+Substring indexing is zero-based unless the positional parameters 
+are used, in which case the indexing starts at 1.
+.TP
+${\fB!\fP\fIprefix\fP\fB*\fP}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fB!\fP\fIprefix\fP\fB@\fP}
+.PD
+Expands to the names of variables whose names begin with \fIprefix\fP,
+separated by the first character of the
+.SM
+.B IFS
+special variable.
+.TP
+${\fB!\fP\fIname\fP[\fI@\fP]}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fB!\fP\fIname\fP[\fI*\fP]}
+.PD
+If \fIname\fP is an array variable, expands to the list of array indices
+(keys) assigned in \fIname\fP.
+If \fIname\fP is not an array, expands to 0 if \fIname\fP is set and null
+otherwise.
+When \fI@\fP is used and the expansion appears within double quotes, each
+key expands to a separate word.
+.TP
+${\fB#\fP\fIparameter\fP}
+The length in characters of the value of \fIparameter\fP is substituted.
+If
+.I parameter
+is
+.B *
+or 
+.BR @ ,
+the value substituted is the number of positional parameters.
+If
+.I parameter
+is an array name subscripted by
+.B *
+or
+.BR @ ,
+the value substituted is the number of elements in the array.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB#\fP\fIword\fP}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB##\fP\fIword\fP}
+.PD
+The 
+.I word
+is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname
+expansion.  If the pattern matches the beginning of
+the value of
+.IR parameter ,
+then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of
+.I parameter
+with the shortest matching pattern (the ``\fB#\fP'' case) or the
+longest matching pattern (the ``\fB##\fP'' case) deleted.
+If
+.I parameter
+is
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional
+parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+If
+.I parameter
+is an array variable subscripted with
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the
+array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB%\fP\fIword\fP}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB%%\fP\fIword\fP}
+.PD
+The \fIword\fP is expanded to produce a pattern just as in
+pathname expansion.
+If the pattern matches a trailing portion of the expanded value of
+.IR parameter ,
+then the result of the expansion is the expanded value of
+.I parameter
+with the shortest matching pattern (the ``\fB%\fP'' case) or the
+longest matching pattern (the ``\fB%%\fP'' case) deleted.
+If
+.I parameter
+is
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the pattern removal operation is applied to each positional
+parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+If
+.I parameter
+is an array variable subscripted with
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the pattern removal operation is applied to each member of the
+array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB/\fP\fIpattern\fP\fB/\fP\fIstring\fP}
+.PD 0
+.TP
+${\fIparameter\fP\fB//\fP\fIpattern\fP\fB/\fP\fIstring\fP}
+.PD
+The \fIpattern\fP is expanded to produce a pattern just as in
+pathname expansion.
+\fIParameter\fP is expanded and the longest match of \fIpattern\fP
+against its value is replaced with \fIstring\fP.
+In the first form, only the first match is replaced.
+The second form causes all matches of \fIpattern\fP to be
+replaced with \fIstring\fP.
+If \fIpattern\fP begins with \fB#\fP, it must match at the beginning
+of the expanded value of \fIparameter\fP.
+If \fIpattern\fP begins with \fB%\fP, it must match at the end
+of the expanded value of \fIparameter\fP.
+If \fIstring\fP is null, matches of \fIpattern\fP are deleted
+and the \fB/\fP following \fIpattern\fP may be omitted.
+If
+.I parameter
+is
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the substitution operation is applied to each positional
+parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+If
+.I parameter
+is an array variable subscripted with
+.B @
+or
+.BR * ,
+the substitution operation is applied to each member of the
+array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
+.SS Command Substitution
+.PP
+\fICommand substitution\fP allows the output of a command to replace
+the command name.  There are two forms:
+.PP
+.RS
+.PP
+\fB$(\fP\fIcommand\fP\|\fB)\fP
+.RE
+or
+.RS
+\fB`\fP\fIcommand\fP\fB`\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+.B Bash
+performs the expansion by executing \fIcommand\fP and
+replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the
+command, with any trailing newlines deleted.
+Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they may be removed during
+word splitting.
+The command substitution \fB$(cat \fIfile\fP)\fR can be replaced by
+the equivalent but faster \fB$(< \fIfile\fP)\fR.
+.PP
+When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used,
+backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by
+.BR $ ,
+.BR ` ,
+or
+.BR \e .
+The first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the
+command substitution.
+When using the $(\^\fIcommand\fP\|) form, all characters between the
+parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially.
+.PP
+Command substitutions may be nested.  To nest when using the backquoted form,
+escape the inner backquotes with backslashes.
+.PP
+If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and
+pathname expansion are not performed on the results.
+.SS Arithmetic Expansion
+.PP
+Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression
+and the substitution of the result.  The format for arithmetic expansion is:
+.RS
+.PP
+\fB$((\fP\fIexpression\fP\fB))\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+The
+.I expression
+is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a double quote
+inside the parentheses is not treated specially.
+All tokens in the expression undergo parameter expansion, string
+expansion, command substitution, and quote removal.
+Arithmetic expansions may be nested.
+.PP
+The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below under
+.SM
+.BR "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION" .
+If
+.I expression
+is invalid,
+.B bash
+prints a message indicating failure and no substitution occurs.
+.SS Process Substitution
+.PP
+\fIProcess substitution\fP is supported on systems that support named
+pipes (\fIFIFOs\fP) or the \fB/dev/fd\fP method of naming open files.
+It takes the form of
+\fB<(\fP\fIlist\^\fP\fB)\fP
+or
+\fB>(\fP\fIlist\^\fP\fB)\fP.
+The process \fIlist\fP is run with its input or output connected to a
+\fIFIFO\fP or some file in \fB/dev/fd\fP.  The name of this file is
+passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the
+expansion.  If the \fB>(\fP\fIlist\^\fP\fB)\fP form is used, writing to
+the file will provide input for \fIlist\fP.  If the
+\fB<(\fP\fIlist\^\fP\fB)\fP form is used, the file passed as an
+argument should be read to obtain the output of \fIlist\fP.
+.PP
+When available, process substitution is performed
+simultaneously with parameter and variable expansion, 
+command substitution,
+and arithmetic expansion.
+.SS Word Splitting
+.PP
+The shell scans the results of
+parameter expansion,
+command substitution,
+and
+arithmetic expansion
+that did not occur within double quotes for
+.IR "word splitting" .
+.PP
+The shell treats each character of
+.SM
+.B IFS
+as a delimiter, and splits the results of the other
+expansions into words on these characters.  If
+.SM
+.B IFS
+is unset, or its
+value is exactly
+.BR <space><tab><newline> ,
+the default, then
+any sequence of
+.SM
+.B IFS
+characters serves to delimit words.  If
+.SM
+.B IFS
+has a value other than the default, then sequences of
+the whitespace characters
+.B space
+and
+.B tab
+are ignored at the beginning and end of the
+word, as long as the whitespace character is in the
+value of
+.SM
+.BR IFS
+(an
+.SM
+.B IFS
+whitespace character).
+Any character in
+.SM
+.B IFS
+that is not
+.SM
+.B IFS
+whitespace, along with any adjacent
+.SM
+.B IFS
+whitespace characters, delimits a field.
+A sequence of
+.SM
+.B IFS
+whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter.
+If the value of
+.SM
+.B IFS
+is null, no word splitting occurs.
+.PP
+Explicit null arguments (\^\f3"\^"\fP or \^\f3'\^'\fP\^) are retained.
+Unquoted implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of
+parameters that have no values, are removed.
+If a parameter with no value is expanded within double quotes, a
+null argument results and is retained.
+.PP
+Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting
+is performed.
+.SS Pathname Expansion
+.PP
+After word splitting,
+unless the
+.B \-f
+option has been set,
+.B bash
+scans each word for the characters
+.BR * ,
+.BR ? ,
+and
+.BR [ .
+If one of these characters appears, then the word is
+regarded as a
+.IR pattern ,
+and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of
+file names matching the pattern.
+If no matching file names are found,
+and the shell option
+.B nullglob
+is disabled, the word is left unchanged.
+If the 
+.B nullglob
+option is set, and no matches are found,
+the word is removed.
+If the
+.B failglob
+shell option is set, and no matches are found, an error message
+is printed and the command is not executed.
+If the shell option
+.B nocaseglob
+is enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case
+of alphabetic characters.
+When a pattern is used for pathname expansion,
+the character
+.B ``.''
+at the start of a name or immediately following a slash
+must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option
+.B dotglob
+is set.
+When matching a pathname, the slash character must always be
+matched explicitly.
+In other cases, the
+.B ``.''
+character is not treated specially.
+See the description of
+.B shopt
+below under
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+for a description of the
+.BR nocaseglob ,
+.BR nullglob ,
+.BR failglob ,
+and
+.B dotglob
+shell options.
+.PP
+The
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+shell variable may be used to restrict the set of file names matching a
+.IR pattern .
+If
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+is set, each matching file name that also matches one of the patterns in
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+is removed from the list of matches.
+The file names
+.B ``.''
+and
+.B ``..''
+are always ignored when
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+is set and not null.  However, setting
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+to a non-null value has the effect of enabling the
+.B dotglob
+shell option, so all other file names beginning with a
+.B ``.''
+will match.
+To get the old behavior of ignoring file names beginning with a
+.BR ``.'' ,
+make
+.B ``.*''
+one of the patterns in
+.SM
+.BR GLOBIGNORE .
+The
+.B dotglob
+option is disabled when
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+is unset.
+.PP
+\fBPattern Matching\fP
+.PP
+Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern
+characters described below, matches itself.  The NUL character may not
+occur in a pattern.  A backslash escapes the following character; the
+escaping backslash is discarded when matching.
+The special pattern characters must be quoted if
+they are to be matched literally.
+.PP
+The special pattern characters have the following meanings:
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B *
+Matches any string, including the null string.
+.TP
+.B ?
+Matches any single character.
+.TP
+.B [...]
+Matches any one of the enclosed characters.  A pair of characters
+separated by a hyphen denotes a
+\fIrange expression\fP;
+any character that sorts between those two characters, inclusive,
+using the current locale's collating sequence and character set,
+is matched.  If the first character following the
+.B [
+is a
+.B !
+or a
+.B ^
+then any character not enclosed is matched.
+The sorting order of characters in range expressions is determined by
+the current locale and the value of the \fBLC_COLLATE\fP shell variable,
+if set.
+A 
+.B \-
+may be matched by including it as the first or last character
+in the set.
+A
+.B ]
+may be matched by including it as the first character
+in the set.
+.br
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+Within
+.B [
+and
+.BR ] ,
+\fIcharacter classes\fP can be specified using the syntax
+\fB[:\fP\fIclass\fP\fB:]\fP, where \fIclass\fP is one of the
+following classes defined in the POSIX.2 standard:
+.PP
+.RS
+.B
+.if n alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower print punct space upper word xdigit
+.if t alnum   alpha   ascii   blank   cntrl   digit   graph   lower   print   punct   space   upper   word   xdigit
+.br
+A character class matches any character belonging to that class.
+The \fBword\fP character class matches letters, digits, and the character _.
+.br
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+Within
+.B [
+and 
+.BR ] ,
+an \fIequivalence class\fP can be specified using the syntax
+\fB[=\fP\fIc\fP\fB=]\fP, which matches all characters with the
+same collation weight (as defined by the current locale) as
+the character \fIc\fP.
+.br
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+Within
+.B [
+and 
+.BR ] ,
+the syntax \fB[.\fP\fIsymbol\fP\fB.]\fP matches the collating symbol
+\fIsymbol\fP.
+.RE
+.PD
+.PP
+If the \fBextglob\fP shell option is enabled using the \fBshopt\fP
+builtin, several extended pattern matching operators are recognized.
+In the following description, a \fIpattern-list\fP is a list of one
+or more patterns separated by a \fB|\fP.
+Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the following
+sub-patterns:
+.sp 1
+.PD 0
+.RS
+.TP
+\fB?(\fP\^\fIpattern-list\^\fP\fB)\fP
+Matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns
+.TP
+\fB*(\fP\^\fIpattern-list\^\fP\fB)\fP
+Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns
+.TP
+\fB+(\fP\^\fIpattern-list\^\fP\fB)\fP
+Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns
+.TP
+\fB@(\fP\^\fIpattern-list\^\fP\fB)\fP
+Matches one of the given patterns
+.TP
+\fB!(\fP\^\fIpattern-list\^\fP\fB)\fP
+Matches anything except one of the given patterns
+.RE
+.PD
+.SS Quote Removal
+.PP
+After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the
+characters
+.BR \e ,
+.BR ' ,
+and \^\f3"\fP\^ that did not result from one of the above
+expansions are removed.
+.SH REDIRECTION
+Before a command is executed, its input and output
+may be
+.I redirected
+using a special notation interpreted by the shell.
+Redirection may also be used to open and close files for the
+current shell execution environment.  The following redirection
+operators may precede or appear anywhere within a
+.I simple command
+or may follow a
+.IR command .
+Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from
+left to right.
+.PP
+In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is
+omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is
+.BR < ,
+the redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor
+0).  If the first character of the redirection operator is
+.BR > ,
+the redirection refers to the standard output (file descriptor
+1).
+.PP
+The word following the redirection operator in the following
+descriptions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion,
+tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
+expansion, quote removal, pathname expansion, and word splitting.
+If it expands to more than one word,
+.B bash
+reports an error.
+.PP
+Note that the order of redirections is significant.  For example, 
+the command
+.RS
+.PP
+ls \fB>\fP dirlist 2\fB>&\fP1
+.RE
+.PP
+directs both standard output and standard error to the file 
+.IR dirlist ,
+while the command
+.RS
+.PP
+ls 2\fB>&\fP1 \fB>\fP dirlist
+.RE
+.PP
+directs only the standard output to file
+.IR dirlist ,
+because the standard error was duplicated as standard output
+before the standard output was redirected to
+.IR dirlist .
+.PP
+\fBBash\fP handles several filenames specially when they are used in
+redirections, as described in the following table:
+.RS
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B /dev/fd/\fIfd\fP
+If \fIfd\fP is a valid integer, file descriptor \fIfd\fP is duplicated.
+.TP
+.B /dev/stdin
+File descriptor 0 is duplicated.
+.TP
+.B /dev/stdout
+File descriptor 1 is duplicated.
+.TP
+.B /dev/stderr
+File descriptor 2 is duplicated.
+.TP
+.B /dev/tcp/\fIhost\fP/\fIport\fP
+If \fIhost\fP is a valid hostname or Internet address, and \fIport\fP
+is an integer port number or service name, \fBbash\fP attempts to open
+a TCP connection to the corresponding socket.
+.TP
+.B /dev/udp/\fIhost\fP/\fIport\fP
+If \fIhost\fP is a valid hostname or Internet address, and \fIport\fP
+is an integer port number or service name, \fBbash\fP attempts to open
+a UDP connection to the corresponding socket.
+.PD
+.RE
+.PP
+A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail.
+.PP
+Redirections using file descriptors greater than 9 should be used with
+care, as they may conflict with file descriptors the shell uses
+internally.
+.SS Redirecting Input
+.PP
+Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from
+the expansion of
+.I word
+to be opened for reading on file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if
+.I n
+is not specified.
+.PP
+The general format for redirecting input is:
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB<\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.SS Redirecting Output
+.PP
+Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from
+the expansion of
+.I word
+to be opened for writing on file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if
+.I n
+is not specified.  If the file does not exist it is created;
+if it does exist it is truncated to zero size.
+.PP
+The general format for redirecting output is:
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB>\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+If the redirection operator is
+.BR > ,
+and the
+.B noclobber
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin has been enabled, the redirection will fail if the file
+whose name results from the expansion of \fIword\fP exists and is
+a regular file.
+If the redirection operator is
+.BR >| ,
+or the redirection operator is
+.B >
+and the
+.B noclobber
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command is not enabled, the redirection is attempted even
+if the file named by \fIword\fP exists.
+.SS Appending Redirected Output
+.PP
+Redirection of output in this fashion
+causes the file whose name results from
+the expansion of
+.I word
+to be opened for appending on file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if
+.I n
+is not specified.  If the file does not exist it is created.
+.PP
+The general format for appending output is:
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB>>\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+.SS Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error
+.PP
+.B Bash
+allows both the
+standard output (file descriptor 1) and
+the standard error output (file descriptor 2)
+to be redirected to the file whose name is the
+expansion of
+.I word
+with this construct.
+.PP
+There are two formats for redirecting standard output and
+standard error:
+.RS
+.PP
+\fB&>\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+and
+.RS
+\fB>&\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+Of the two forms, the first is preferred.
+This is semantically equivalent to
+.RS
+.PP
+\fB>\fP\fIword\fP 2\fB>&\fP1
+.RE
+.SS Here Documents
+.PP
+This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the
+current source until a line containing only
+.I word
+(with no trailing blanks)
+is seen.  All of
+the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard
+input for a command.
+.PP
+The format of here-documents is:
+.RS
+.PP
+.nf
+\fB<<\fP[\fB\-\fP]\fIword\fP
+        \fIhere-document\fP
+\fIdelimiter\fP
+.fi
+.RE
+.PP
+No parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion,
+or pathname expansion is performed on
+.IR word .
+If any characters in
+.I word
+are quoted, the
+.I delimiter
+is the result of quote removal on
+.IR word ,
+and the lines in the here-document are not expanded.
+If \fIword\fP is unquoted,
+all lines of the here-document are subjected to parameter expansion,
+command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.  In the latter
+case, the character sequence
+.B \e<newline>
+is ignored, and
+.B \e
+must be used to quote the characters
+.BR \e ,
+.BR $ ,
+and
+.BR ` .
+.PP
+If the redirection operator is
+.BR <<\- ,
+then all leading tab characters are stripped from input lines and the
+line containing
+.IR delimiter .
+This allows
+here-documents within shell scripts to be indented in a
+natural fashion.
+.SS "Here Strings"
+A variant of here documents, the format is:
+.RS
+.PP
+.nf
+\fB<<<\fP\fIword\fP
+.fi
+.RE
+.PP
+The \fIword\fP is expanded and supplied to the command on its standard
+input.
+.SS "Duplicating File Descriptors"
+.PP
+The redirection operator
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB<&\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+is used to duplicate input file descriptors.
+If
+.I word
+expands to one or more digits, the file descriptor denoted by
+.I n
+is made to be a copy of that file descriptor.
+If the digits in
+.I word
+do not specify a file descriptor open for input, a redirection error occurs.
+If
+.I word
+evaluates to
+.BR \- ,
+file descriptor
+.I n
+is closed.  If
+.I n
+is not specified, the standard input (file descriptor 0) is used.
+.PP
+The operator
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB>&\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors.  If
+.I n
+is not specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used.
+If the digits in
+.I word
+do not specify a file descriptor open for output, a redirection error occurs.
+As a special case, if \fIn\fP is omitted, and \fIword\fP does not
+expand to one or more digits, the standard output and standard
+error are redirected as described previously.
+.SS "Moving File Descriptors"
+.PP
+The redirection operator
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB<&\fP\fIdigit\fP\fB\-\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+moves the file descriptor \fIdigit\fP to file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if \fIn\fP is not specified.
+\fIdigit\fP is closed after being duplicated to \fIn\fP.
+.PP
+Similarly, the redirection operator
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB>&\fP\fIdigit\fP\fB\-\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+moves the file descriptor \fIdigit\fP to file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if \fIn\fP is not specified.
+.SS "Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing"
+.PP
+The redirection operator
+.RS
+.PP
+[\fIn\fP]\fB<>\fP\fIword\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+causes the file whose name is the expansion of
+.I word
+to be opened for both reading and writing on file descriptor
+.IR n ,
+or on file descriptor 0 if
+.I n
+is not specified.  If the file does not exist, it is created.
+.SH ALIASES
+\fIAliases\fP allow a string to be substituted for a word when it is used
+as the first word of a simple command.
+The shell maintains a list of aliases that may be set and unset with the
+.B alias
+and
+.B unalias
+builtin commands (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+The first word of each simple command, if unquoted,
+is checked to see if it has an
+alias.  If so, that word is replaced by the text of the alias.
+The characters \fB/\fP, \fB$\fP, \fB`\fP, and \fB=\fP and
+any of the shell \fImetacharacters\fP or quoting characters
+listed above may not appear in an alias name.
+The replacement text may contain any valid shell input,
+including shell metacharacters.
+The first word of the replacement text is tested
+for aliases, but a word that is identical to an alias being expanded
+is not expanded a second time.
+This means that one may alias
+.B ls
+to
+.BR "ls \-F" ,
+for instance, and
+.B bash
+does not try to recursively expand the replacement text.
+If the last character of the alias value is a
+.IR blank ,
+then the next command
+word following the alias is also checked for alias expansion.
+.PP
+Aliases are created and listed with the
+.B alias
+command, and removed with the
+.B unalias
+command.
+.PP
+There is no mechanism for using arguments in the replacement text.
+If arguments are needed, a shell function should be used (see
+.SM
+.B FUNCTIONS
+below).
+.PP
+Aliases are not expanded when the shell is not interactive, unless
+the
+.B expand_aliases
+shell option is set using
+.B shopt
+(see the description of
+.B shopt
+under
+.SM
+\fBSHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS\fP
+below).
+.PP
+The rules concerning the definition and use of aliases are
+somewhat confusing.
+.B Bash
+always reads at least one complete line
+of input before executing any
+of the commands on that line.  Aliases are expanded when a
+command is read, not when it is executed.  Therefore, an
+alias definition appearing on the same line as another
+command does not take effect until the next line of input is read.
+The commands following the alias definition
+on that line are not affected by the new alias.
+This behavior is also an issue when functions are executed.
+Aliases are expanded when a function definition is read,
+not when the function is executed, because a function definition
+is itself a compound command.  As a consequence, aliases
+defined in a function are not available until after that
+function is executed.  To be safe, always put
+alias definitions on a separate line, and do not use
+.B alias
+in compound commands.
+.PP
+For almost every purpose, aliases are superseded by
+shell functions.
+.SH FUNCTIONS
+A shell function, defined as described above under
+.SM
+.BR "SHELL GRAMMAR" ,
+stores a series of commands for later execution.
+When the name of a shell function is used as a simple command name,
+the list of commands associated with that function name is executed.
+Functions are executed in the context of the
+current shell; no new process is created to interpret
+them (contrast this with the execution of a shell script).
+When a function is executed, the arguments to the
+function become the positional parameters
+during its execution.
+The special parameter
+.B #
+is updated to reflect the change.  Special parameter 0
+is unchanged.
+The first element of the
+.SM
+.B FUNCNAME
+variable is set to the name of the function while the function
+is executing.
+All other aspects of the shell execution
+environment are identical between a function and its caller
+with the exception that the
+.SM
+.B DEBUG
+and
+.B RETURN
+traps (see the description of the
+.B trap
+builtin under
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below) are not inherited unless the function has been given the
+\fBtrace\fP attribute (see the description of the
+.SM
+.B declare
+builtin below) or the
+\fB\-o functrace\fP shell option has been enabled with
+the \fBset\fP builtin
+(in which case all functions inherit the \fBDEBUG\fP and \fBRETURN\fP traps).
+.PP
+Variables local to the function may be declared with the
+.B local
+builtin command.  Ordinarily, variables and their values
+are shared between the function and its caller.
+.PP
+If the builtin command
+.B return
+is executed in a function, the function completes and
+execution resumes with the next command after the function
+call.
+Any command associated with the \fBRETURN\fP trap is executed
+before execution resumes.
+When a function completes, the values of the
+positional parameters and the special parameter
+.B #
+are restored to the values they had prior to the function's
+execution.
+.PP
+Function names and definitions may be listed with the
+.B \-f
+option to the
+.B declare
+or
+.B typeset
+builtin commands.  The
+.B \-F
+option to
+.B declare
+or
+.B typeset
+will list the function names only
+(and optionally the source file and line number, if the \fBextdebug\fP
+shell option is enabled).
+Functions may be exported so that subshells
+automatically have them defined with the
+.B \-f
+option to the 
+.B export
+builtin.
+Note that shell functions and variables with the same name may result
+in multiple identically-named entries in the environment passed to the
+shell's children.
+Care should be taken in cases where this may cause a problem.
+.PP
+Functions may be recursive.  No limit is imposed on the number
+of recursive calls.
+.SH "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION"
+The shell allows arithmetic expressions to be evaluated, under
+certain circumstances (see the \fBlet\fP and \fBdeclare\fP builtin
+commands and \fBArithmetic Expansion\fP).
+Evaluation is done in fixed-width integers with no check for overflow,
+though division by 0 is trapped and flagged as an error.
+The operators and their precedence, associativity, and values
+are the same as in the C language.
+The following list of operators is grouped into levels of
+equal-precedence operators.
+The levels are listed in order of decreasing precedence.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \fIid\fP++ \fIid\fP\-\-
+variable post-increment and post-decrement
+.TP
+.B ++\fIid\fP \-\-\fIid\fP
+variable pre-increment and pre-decrement
+.TP
+.B \- +
+unary minus and plus
+.TP
+.B ! ~
+logical and bitwise negation
+.TP
+.B **
+exponentiation
+.TP
+.B * / %
+multiplication, division, remainder
+.TP
+.B + \-
+addition, subtraction
+.TP
+.B << >>
+left and right bitwise shifts
+.TP
+.B <= >= < >
+comparison
+.TP
+.B == !=
+equality and inequality
+.TP
+.B &
+bitwise AND
+.TP
+.B ^
+bitwise exclusive OR
+.TP
+.B |
+bitwise OR
+.TP
+.B &&
+logical AND
+.TP
+.B ||
+logical OR
+.TP
+.B \fIexpr\fP?\fIexpr\fP:\fIexpr\fP
+conditional operator
+.TP
+.B = *= /= %= += \-= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
+assignment
+.TP
+.B \fIexpr1\fP , \fIexpr2\fP
+comma
+.PD
+.PP
+Shell variables are allowed as operands; parameter expansion is
+performed before the expression is evaluated.
+Within an expression, shell variables may also be referenced by name
+without using the parameter expansion syntax.
+A shell variable that is null or unset evaluates to 0 when referenced
+by name without using the parameter expansion syntax.
+The value of a variable is evaluated as an arithmetic expression
+when it is referenced, or when a variable which has been given the
+\fIinteger\fP attribute using \fBdeclare -i\fP is assigned a value.
+A null value evaluates to 0.
+A shell variable need not have its integer attribute
+turned on to be used in an expression.
+.PP
+Constants with a leading 0 are interpreted as octal numbers.
+A leading 0x or 0X denotes hexadecimal.
+Otherwise, numbers take the form [\fIbase#\fP]n, where \fIbase\fP
+is a decimal number between 2 and 64 representing the arithmetic
+base, and \fIn\fP is a number in that base.
+If \fIbase#\fP is omitted, then base 10 is used.
+The digits greater than 9 are represented by the lowercase letters,
+the uppercase letters, @, and _, in that order.
+If \fIbase\fP is less than or equal to 36, lowercase and uppercase
+letters may be used interchangeably to represent numbers between 10
+and 35.
+.PP
+Operators are evaluated in order of precedence.  Sub-expressions in
+parentheses are evaluated first and may override the precedence
+rules above.
+.SH "CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS"
+Conditional expressions are used by the \fB[[\fP compound command and
+the \fBtest\fP and \fB[\fP builtin commands to test file attributes
+and perform string and arithmetic comparisons.
+Expressions are formed from the following unary or binary primaries.
+If any \fIfile\fP argument to one of the primaries is of the form
+\fI/dev/fd/n\fP, then file descriptor \fIn\fP is checked.
+If the \fIfile\fP argument to one of the primaries is one of
+\fI/dev/stdin\fP, \fI/dev/stdout\fP, or \fI/dev/stderr\fP, file
+descriptor 0, 1, or 2, respectively, is checked.
+.PP
+Unless otherwise specified, primaries that operate on files follow symbolic
+links and operate on the target of the link, rather than the link itself.
+.sp 1
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-a \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists.
+.TP
+.B \-b \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a block special file.
+.TP
+.B \-c \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a character special file.
+.TP
+.B \-d \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a directory.
+.TP
+.B \-e \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists.
+.TP
+.B \-f \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a regular file.
+.TP
+.B \-g \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is set-group-id.
+.TP
+.B \-h \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a symbolic link.
+.TP
+.B \-k \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and its ``sticky'' bit is set.
+.TP
+.B \-p \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a named pipe (FIFO).
+.TP
+.B \-r \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is readable.
+.TP
+.B \-s \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and has a size greater than zero.
+.TP
+.B \-t \fIfd\fP
+True if file descriptor
+.I fd
+is open and refers to a terminal.
+.TP
+.B \-u \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and its set-user-id bit is set.
+.TP
+.B \-w \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is writable.
+.TP
+.B \-x \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is executable.
+.TP
+.B \-O \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is owned by the effective user id.
+.TP
+.B \-G \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is owned by the effective group id.
+.TP
+.B \-L \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a symbolic link.
+.TP
+.B \-S \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and is a socket.
+.TP
+.B \-N \fIfile\fP
+True if \fIfile\fP exists and has been modified since it was last read.
+.TP
+\fIfile1\fP \-\fBnt\fP \fIfile2\fP
+True if \fIfile1\fP is newer (according to modification date) than \fIfile2\fP,
+or if \fIfile1\fP exists and \fPfile2\fP does not.
+.TP
+\fIfile1\fP \-\fBot\fP \fIfile2\fP
+True if \fIfile1\fP is older than \fIfile2\fP, or if \fIfile2\fP exists
+and \fIfile1\fP does not.
+.TP
+\fIfile1\fP \fB\-ef\fP \fIfile2\fP
+True if \fIfile1\fP and \fIfile2\fP refer to the same device and
+inode numbers.
+.TP
+.B \-o \fIoptname\fP
+True if shell option
+.I optname
+is enabled.
+See the list of options under the description of the
+.B \-o
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin below.
+.TP
+.B \-z \fIstring\fP
+True if the length of \fIstring\fP is zero.
+.TP
+\fIstring\fP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-n \fIstring\fP
+.PD
+True if the length of
+.I string
+is non-zero.
+.TP
+\fIstring1\fP \fB==\fP \fIstring2\fP
+True if the strings are equal.  \fB=\fP may be used in place of
+\fB==\fP for strict POSIX compliance.
+.TP
+\fIstring1\fP \fB!=\fP \fIstring2\fP
+True if the strings are not equal.
+.TP
+\fIstring1\fP \fB<\fP \fIstring2\fP
+True if \fIstring1\fP sorts before \fIstring2\fP lexicographically
+in the current locale.
+.TP
+\fIstring1\fP \fB>\fP \fIstring2\fP
+True if \fIstring1\fP sorts after \fIstring2\fP lexicographically
+in the current locale.
+.TP
+.I \fIarg1\fP \fBOP\fP \fIarg2\fP
+.SM
+.B OP
+is one of
+.BR \-eq ,
+.BR \-ne ,
+.BR \-lt ,
+.BR \-le ,
+.BR \-gt ,
+or
+.BR \-ge .
+These arithmetic binary operators return true if \fIarg1\fP
+is equal to, not equal to, less than, less than or equal to,
+greater than, or greater than or equal to \fIarg2\fP, respectively.
+.I Arg1
+and
+.I arg2
+may be positive or negative integers.
+.PD
+.SH "SIMPLE COMMAND EXPANSION"
+When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following
+expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right.
+.IP 1.
+The words that the parser has marked as variable assignments (those
+preceding the command name) and redirections are saved for later
+processing.
+.IP 2.
+The words that are not variable assignments or redirections are
+expanded.  If any words remain after expansion, the first word
+is taken to be the name of the command and the remaining words are
+the arguments.
+.IP 3.
+Redirections are performed as described above under
+.SM
+.BR REDIRECTION .
+.IP 4.
+The text after the \fB=\fP in each variable assignment undergoes tilde
+expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion,
+and quote removal before being assigned to the variable.
+.PP
+If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current
+shell environment.  Otherwise, the variables are added to the environment
+of the executed command and do not affect the current shell environment.
+If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a readonly variable,
+an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-zero status.
+.PP
+If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not
+affect the current shell environment.  A redirection error causes the
+command to exit with a non-zero status.
+.PP
+If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as
+described below.  Otherwise, the command exits.  If one of the expansions
+contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command is
+the exit status of the last command substitution performed.  If there
+were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of zero.
+.SH "COMMAND EXECUTION"
+After a command has been split into words, if it results in a
+simple command and an optional list of arguments, the following
+actions are taken.
+.PP
+If the command name contains no slashes, the shell attempts to
+locate it.  If there exists a shell function by that name, that
+function is invoked as described above in
+.SM
+.BR FUNCTIONS .
+If the name does not match a function, the shell searches for
+it in the list of shell builtins.  If a match is found, that
+builtin is invoked.
+.PP
+If the name is neither a shell function nor a builtin,
+and contains no slashes,
+.B bash
+searches each element of the
+.SM
+.B PATH
+for a directory containing an executable file by that name.
+.B Bash
+uses a hash table to remember the full pathnames of executable
+files (see
+.B hash
+under
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below).
+A full search of the directories in
+.SM
+.B PATH
+is performed only if the command is not found in the hash table.
+If the search is unsuccessful, the shell prints an error
+message and returns an exit status of 127.
+.PP
+If the search is successful, or if the command name contains
+one or more slashes, the shell executes the named program in a
+separate execution environment.
+Argument 0 is set to the name given, and the remaining arguments
+to the command are set to the arguments given, if any.
+.PP
+If this execution fails because the file is not in executable
+format, and the file is not a directory, it is assumed to be
+a \fIshell script\fP, a file
+containing shell commands.  A subshell is spawned to execute
+it.  This subshell reinitializes itself, so
+that the effect is as if a new shell had been invoked
+to handle the script, with the exception that the locations of
+commands remembered by the parent (see
+.B hash
+below under
+.SM
+\fBSHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS\fP)
+are retained by the child.
+.PP
+If the program is a file beginning with
+.BR #! ,
+the remainder of the first line specifies an interpreter
+for the program.  The shell executes the
+specified interpreter on operating systems that do not
+handle this executable format themselves.  The arguments to the 
+interpreter consist of a single optional argument following the
+interpreter name on the first line of the program, followed
+by the name of the program, followed by the command
+arguments, if any.
+.SH COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT
+The shell has an \fIexecution environment\fP, which consists of the
+following:
+.sp 1
+.IP \(bu
+open files inherited by the shell at invocation, as modified by
+redirections supplied to the \fBexec\fP builtin
+.IP \(bu
+the current working directory as set by \fBcd\fP, \fBpushd\fP, or
+\fBpopd\fP, or inherited by the shell at invocation
+.IP \(bu
+the file creation mode mask as set by \fBumask\fP or inherited from
+the shell's parent
+.IP \(bu
+current traps set by \fBtrap\fP
+.IP \(bu
+shell parameters that are set by variable assignment or with \fBset\fP
+or inherited from the shell's parent in the environment
+.IP \(bu
+shell functions defined during execution or inherited from the shell's
+parent in the environment
+.IP \(bu
+options enabled at invocation (either by default or with command-line
+arguments) or by \fBset\fP
+.IP \(bu
+options enabled by \fBshopt\fP
+.IP \(bu
+shell aliases defined with \fBalias\fP
+.IP \(bu
+various process IDs, including those of background jobs, the value
+of \fB$$\fP, and the value of \fB$PPID\fP
+.PP
+When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function
+is to be executed, it
+is invoked in a separate execution environment that consists of
+the following.  Unless otherwise noted, the values are inherited
+from the shell.
+.sp 1
+.IP \(bu
+the shell's open files, plus any modifications and additions specified
+by redirections to the command
+.IP \(bu
+the current working directory
+.IP \(bu
+the file creation mode mask
+.IP \(bu
+shell variables and functions marked for export, along with variables
+exported for the command, passed in the environment
+.IP \(bu
+traps caught by the shell are reset to the values inherited from the
+shell's parent, and traps ignored by the shell are ignored
+.PP
+A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the
+shell's execution environment. 
+.PP
+Command substitution, commands grouped with parentheses,
+and asynchronous commands are invoked in a
+subshell environment that is a duplicate of the shell environment,
+except that traps caught by the shell are reset to the values
+that the shell inherited from its parent at invocation.  Builtin
+commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline are also executed in a
+subshell environment.  Changes made to the subshell environment
+cannot affect the shell's execution environment.
+.PP
+If a command is followed by a \fB&\fP and job control is not active, the
+default standard input for the command is the empty file \fI/dev/null\fP.
+Otherwise, the invoked command inherits the file descriptors of the calling
+shell as modified by redirections.
+.SH ENVIRONMENT
+When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings
+called the
+.IR environment .
+This is a list of 
+\fIname\fP\-\fIvalue\fP pairs, of the form
+.IR "name\fR=\fPvalue" .
+.PP
+The shell provides several ways to manipulate the environment.
+On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and
+creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking
+it for
+.I export
+to child processes.  Executed commands inherit the environment.
+The
+.B export
+and
+.B declare \-x
+commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and
+deleted from the environment.  If the value of a parameter
+in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part
+of the environment, replacing the old.  The environment
+inherited by any executed command consists of the shell's
+initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell,
+less any pairs removed by the
+.B unset
+command, plus any additions via the
+.B export
+and
+.B declare \-x
+commands.
+.PP
+The environment for any
+.I simple command
+or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with
+parameter assignments, as described above in
+.SM
+.BR PARAMETERS .
+These assignment statements affect only the environment seen
+by that command.
+.PP
+If the 
+.B \-k
+option is set (see the
+.B set
+builtin command below), then
+.I all
+parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command,
+not just those that precede the command name.
+.PP
+When
+.B bash
+invokes an external command, the variable
+.B _
+is set to the full file name of the command and passed to that
+command in its environment.
+.SH "EXIT STATUS"
+For the shell's purposes, a command which exits with a 
+zero exit status has succeeded.  An exit status of zero
+indicates success.  A non-zero exit status indicates failure.
+When a command terminates on a fatal signal \fIN\fP, \fBbash\fP uses
+the value of 128+\fIN\fP as the exit status.
+.PP
+If a command is not found, the child process created to
+execute it returns a status of 127.  If a command is found
+but is not executable, the return status is 126.
+.PP
+If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection,
+the exit status is greater than zero.
+.PP
+Shell builtin commands return a status of 0 (\fItrue\fP) if
+successful, and non-zero (\fIfalse\fP) if an error occurs
+while they execute. 
+All builtins return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage.
+.PP
+\fBBash\fP itself returns the exit status of the last command
+executed, unless a syntax error occurs, in which case it exits
+with a non-zero value.  See also the \fBexit\fP builtin
+command below.
+.SH SIGNALS
+When \fBbash\fP is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores
+.SM
+.B SIGTERM
+(so that \fBkill 0\fP does not kill an interactive shell),
+and
+.SM
+.B SIGINT
+is caught and handled (so that the \fBwait\fP builtin is interruptible).
+In all cases, \fBbash\fP ignores
+.SM
+.BR SIGQUIT .
+If job control is in effect,
+.B bash
+ignores
+.SM
+.BR SIGTTIN ,
+.SM
+.BR SIGTTOU ,
+and
+.SM
+.BR SIGTSTP .
+.PP
+Non-builtin commands run by \fBbash\fP have signal handlers
+set to the values inherited by the shell from its parent.
+When job control is not in effect, asynchronous commands
+ignore
+.SM
+.B SIGINT
+and
+.SM
+.B SIGQUIT
+in addition to these inherited handlers.
+Commands run as a result of command substitution ignore the
+keyboard-generated job control signals
+.SM
+.BR SIGTTIN ,
+.SM
+.BR SIGTTOU ,
+and
+.SM
+.BR SIGTSTP .
+.PP
+The shell exits by default upon receipt of a
+.SM
+.BR SIGHUP .
+Before exiting, an interactive shell resends the
+.SM
+.B SIGHUP
+to all jobs, running or stopped.
+Stopped jobs are sent
+.SM
+.B SIGCONT
+to ensure that they receive the
+.SM
+.BR SIGHUP .
+To prevent the shell from
+sending the signal to a particular job, it should be removed from the
+jobs table with the 
+.B disown
+builtin (see
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below) or marked 
+to not receive
+.SM
+.B SIGHUP
+using
+.BR "disown \-h" .
+.PP
+If the
+.B huponexit
+shell option has been set with
+.BR shopt ,
+.B bash
+sends a 
+.SM
+.B SIGHUP
+to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits.
+.PP
+If \fBbash\fP is waiting for a command to complete and receives a signal
+for which a trap has been set, the trap will not be executed until
+the command completes. 
+When \fBbash\fP is waiting for an asynchronous command via the \fBwait\fP
+builtin, the reception of a signal for which a trap has been set will
+cause the \fBwait\fP builtin to return immediately with an exit status
+greater than 128, immediately after which the trap is executed.
+.SH "JOB CONTROL"
+.I Job control
+refers to the ability to selectively stop (\fIsuspend\fP)
+the execution of processes and continue (\fIresume\fP)
+their execution at a later point.  A user typically employs
+this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly
+by the system's terminal driver and
+.BR bash .
+.PP
+The shell associates a
+.I job
+with each pipeline.  It keeps a table of currently executing
+jobs, which may be listed with the
+.B jobs
+command.  When
+.B bash
+starts a job asynchronously (in the
+.IR background ),
+it prints a line that looks like:
+.RS
+.PP
+[1] 25647
+.RE
+.PP
+indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process ID
+of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647.
+All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job.
+.B Bash
+uses the
+.I job
+abstraction as the basis for job control.
+.PP
+To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job
+control, the operating system maintains the notion of a \fIcurrent terminal
+process group ID\fP.  Members of this process group (processes whose
+process group ID is equal to the current terminal process group ID)
+receive keyboard-generated signals such as
+.SM
+.BR SIGINT .
+These processes are said to be in the
+.IR foreground .
+.I Background
+processes are those whose process group ID differs from the terminal's;
+such processes are immune to keyboard-generated signals.
+Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or write to the
+terminal.  Background processes which attempt to read from (write to) the
+terminal are sent a 
+.SM
+.B SIGTTIN (SIGTTOU)
+signal by the terminal driver, 
+which, unless caught, suspends the process.
+.PP
+If the operating system on which
+.B bash
+is running supports
+job control,
+.B bash
+contains facilities to use it.
+Typing the
+.I suspend
+character (typically
+.BR ^Z ,
+Control-Z) while a process is running
+causes that process to be stopped and returns control to 
+.BR bash .
+Typing the
+.I "delayed suspend"
+character (typically
+.BR ^Y ,
+Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped when it
+attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to
+be returned to
+.BR bash .
+The user may then manipulate the state of this job, using the
+.B bg
+command to continue it in the background, the
+.B fg
+command to continue it in the foreground, or
+the
+.B kill
+command to kill it.  A \fB^Z\fP takes effect immediately,
+and has the additional side effect of causing pending output
+and typeahead to be discarded.
+.PP
+There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell.
+The character
+.B %
+introduces a job name.  Job number
+.I n
+may be referred to as
+.BR %n .
+A job may also be referred to using a prefix of the name used to
+start it, or using a substring that appears in its command line.
+For example,
+.B %ce
+refers to a stopped
+.B ce
+job.  If a prefix matches more than one job,
+.B bash
+reports an error.  Using
+.BR %?ce ,
+on the other hand, refers to any job containing the string
+.B ce
+in its command line.  If the substring matches more than one job,
+.B bash
+reports an error.  The symbols
+.B %%
+and
+.B %+
+refer to the shell's notion of the
+.IR "current job" ,
+which is the last job stopped while it was in
+the foreground or started in the background.
+The 
+.I "previous job"
+may be referenced using
+.BR %\- .
+In output pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the
+.B jobs
+command), the current job is always flagged with a
+.BR + ,
+and the previous job with a
+.BR \- .
+A single % (with no accompanying job specification) also refers to the
+current job.
+.PP
+Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the
+foreground:
+.B %1
+is a synonym for
+\fB``fg %1''\fP,
+bringing job 1 from the background into the foreground.
+Similarly,
+.B ``%1 &''
+resumes job 1 in the background, equivalent to
+\fB``bg %1''\fP.
+.PP
+The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state.
+Normally,
+.B bash
+waits until it is about to print a prompt before reporting
+changes in a job's status so as to not interrupt
+any other output.  If the 
+.B \-b
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command
+is enabled,
+.B bash
+reports such changes immediately.
+Any trap on
+.SM
+.B SIGCHLD
+is executed for each child that exits.
+.PP
+If an attempt to exit
+.B bash
+is made while jobs are stopped, the shell prints a warning message.  The
+.B jobs
+command may then be used to inspect their status.
+If a second attempt to exit is made without an intervening command,
+the shell does not print another warning, and the stopped
+jobs are terminated.
+.SH PROMPTING
+When executing interactively, 
+.B bash
+displays the primary prompt
+.SM
+.B PS1
+when it is ready to read a command, and the secondary prompt
+.SM
+.B PS2
+when it needs more input to complete a command.
+.B Bash
+allows these prompt strings to be customized by inserting a number of
+backslash-escaped special characters that are decoded as follows:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \ea
+an ASCII bell character (07)
+.TP
+.B \ed
+the date in "Weekday Month Date" format (e.g., "Tue May 26")
+.TP
+.B \eD{\fIformat\fP}
+the \fIformat\fP is passed to \fIstrftime\fP(3) and the result is inserted
+into the prompt string; an empty \fIformat\fP results in a locale-specific
+time representation.  The braces are required
+.TP
+.B \ee
+an ASCII escape character (033)
+.TP
+.B \eh
+the hostname up to the first `.'
+.TP
+.B \eH
+the hostname
+.TP
+.B \ej
+the number of jobs currently managed by the shell
+.TP
+.B \el
+the basename of the shell's terminal device name
+.TP
+.B \en
+newline
+.TP
+.B \er
+carriage return
+.TP
+.B \es
+the name of the shell, the basename of
+.B $0
+(the portion following the final slash)
+.TP
+.B \et
+the current time in 24-hour HH:MM:SS format
+.TP
+.B \eT
+the current time in 12-hour HH:MM:SS format
+.TP
+.B \e@
+the current time in 12-hour am/pm format
+.TP
+.B \eA
+the current time in 24-hour HH:MM format
+.TP
+.B \eu
+the username of the current user
+.TP
+.B \ev
+the version of \fBbash\fP (e.g., 2.00)
+.TP
+.B \eV
+the release of \fBbash\fP, version + patch level (e.g., 2.00.0)
+.TP
+.B \ew
+the current working directory, with \fB$HOME\fP abbreviated with a tilde
+.TP
+.B \eW
+the basename of the current working directory, with \fB$HOME\fP
+abbreviated with a tilde
+.TP
+.B \e!
+the history number of this command
+.TP
+.B \e#
+the command number of this command
+.TP
+.B \e$
+if the effective UID is 0, a
+.BR # ,
+otherwise a
+.B $
+.TP
+.B \e\fInnn\fP
+the character corresponding to the octal number \fInnn\fP
+.TP
+.B \e\e
+a backslash
+.TP
+.B \e[
+begin a sequence of non-printing characters, which could be used to
+embed a terminal control sequence into the prompt
+.TP
+.B \e]
+end a sequence of non-printing characters
+.PD
+.RE
+.PP
+The command number and the history number are usually different:
+the history number of a command is its position in the history
+list, which may include commands restored from the history file
+(see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY
+below), while the command number is the position in the sequence
+of commands executed during the current shell session.
+After the string is decoded, it is expanded via
+parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
+expansion, and quote removal, subject to the value of the
+.B promptvars
+shell option (see the description of the
+.B shopt
+command under
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below).
+.SH READLINE
+This is the library that handles reading input when using an interactive
+shell, unless the
+.B \-\-noediting
+option is given at shell invocation.
+By default, the line editing commands are similar to those of emacs.
+A vi-style line editing interface is also available.
+To turn off line editing after the shell is running, use the
+.B +o emacs
+or
+.B +o vi
+options to the
+.B set
+builtin (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.SS "Readline Notation"
+.PP
+In this section, the emacs-style notation is used to denote
+keystrokes.  Control keys are denoted by C\-\fIkey\fR, e.g., C\-n
+means Control\-N.  Similarly, 
+.I meta
+keys are denoted by M\-\fIkey\fR, so M\-x means Meta\-X.  (On keyboards
+without a 
+.I meta
+key, M\-\fIx\fP means ESC \fIx\fP, i.e., press the Escape key
+then the
+.I x
+key.  This makes ESC the \fImeta prefix\fP.
+The combination M\-C\-\fIx\fP means ESC\-Control\-\fIx\fP,
+or press the Escape key
+then hold the Control key while pressing the
+.I x
+key.)
+.PP
+Readline commands may be given numeric
+.IR arguments ,
+which normally act as a repeat count.
+Sometimes, however, it is the sign of the argument that is significant.
+Passing a negative argument to a command that acts in the forward
+direction (e.g., \fBkill\-line\fP) causes that command to act in a
+backward direction. 
+Commands whose behavior with arguments deviates from this are noted
+below.
+.PP
+When a command is described as \fIkilling\fP text, the text
+deleted is saved for possible future retrieval
+(\fIyanking\fP).  The killed text is saved in a
+\fIkill ring\fP.  Consecutive kills cause the text to be
+accumulated into one unit, which can be yanked all at once. 
+Commands which do not kill text separate the chunks of text
+on the kill ring.
+.SS "Readline Initialization"
+.PP
+Readline is customized by putting commands in an initialization
+file (the \fIinputrc\fP file).
+The name of this file is taken from the value of the
+.SM
+.B INPUTRC
+variable.  If that variable is unset, the default is
+.IR ~/.inputrc .
+When a program which uses the readline library starts up, the
+initialization file is read, and the key bindings and variables
+are set.
+There are only a few basic constructs allowed in the
+readline initialization file.
+Blank lines are ignored.
+Lines beginning with a \fB#\fP are comments.
+Lines beginning with a \fB$\fP indicate conditional constructs.
+Other lines denote key bindings and variable settings.
+.PP
+The default key-bindings may be changed with an
+.I inputrc 
+file.
+Other programs that use this library may add their own commands
+and bindings.
+.PP
+For example, placing
+.RS
+.PP
+M\-Control\-u: universal\-argument
+.RE
+or
+.RS
+C\-Meta\-u: universal\-argument
+.RE
+into the 
+.I inputrc
+would make M\-C\-u execute the readline command
+.IR universal\-argument .
+.PP
+The following symbolic character names are recognized:
+.IR RUBOUT ,
+.IR DEL ,
+.IR ESC ,
+.IR LFD ,
+.IR NEWLINE ,
+.IR RET ,
+.IR RETURN ,
+.IR SPC ,
+.IR SPACE ,
+and
+.IR TAB .
+.PP
+In addition to command names, readline allows keys to be bound
+to a string that is inserted when the key is pressed (a \fImacro\fP).
+.SS "Readline Key Bindings"
+.PP
+The syntax for controlling key bindings in the
+.I inputrc
+file is simple.  All that is required is the name of the
+command or the text of a macro and a key sequence to which
+it should be bound. The name may be specified in one of two ways:
+as a symbolic key name, possibly with \fIMeta\-\fP or \fIControl\-\fP
+prefixes, or as a key sequence.
+.PP
+When using the form \fBkeyname\fP:\^\fIfunction\-name\fP or \fImacro\fP,
+.I keyname
+is the name of a key spelled out in English.  For example:
+.sp
+.RS
+Control-u: universal\-argument
+.br
+Meta-Rubout: backward-kill-word
+.br
+Control-o: "> output"
+.RE
+.LP
+In the above example,
+.I C\-u
+is bound to the function
+.BR universal\-argument ,
+.I M\-DEL
+is bound to the function
+.BR backward\-kill\-word ,
+and
+.I C\-o
+is bound to run the macro
+expressed on the right hand side (that is, to insert the text
+.if t \f(CW> output\fP
+.if n ``> output''
+into the line).
+.PP
+In the second form, \fB"keyseq"\fP:\^\fIfunction\-name\fP or \fImacro\fP,
+.B keyseq
+differs from
+.B keyname
+above in that strings denoting
+an entire key sequence may be specified by placing the sequence
+within double quotes.  Some GNU Emacs style key escapes can be
+used, as in the following example, but the symbolic character names
+are not recognized.
+.sp
+.RS
+"\eC\-u": universal\-argument
+.br
+"\eC\-x\eC\-r": re\-read\-init\-file
+.br
+"\ee[11~": "Function Key 1"
+.RE
+.PP
+In this example,
+.I C\-u
+is again bound to the function
+.BR universal\-argument .
+.I "C\-x C\-r"
+is bound to the function
+.BR re\-read\-init\-file ,
+and 
+.I "ESC [ 1 1 ~"
+is bound to insert the text
+.if t \f(CWFunction Key 1\fP.
+.if n ``Function Key 1''.
+.PP
+The full set of GNU Emacs style escape sequences is
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \eC\-
+control prefix
+.TP
+.B \eM\-
+meta prefix
+.TP
+.B \ee
+an escape character
+.TP
+.B \e\e
+backslash
+.TP
+.B \e"
+literal "
+.TP
+.B \e'
+literal '
+.RE
+.PD
+.PP
+In addition to the GNU Emacs style escape sequences, a second
+set of backslash escapes is available:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \ea
+alert (bell)
+.TP
+.B \eb
+backspace
+.TP
+.B \ed
+delete
+.TP
+.B \ef
+form feed
+.TP
+.B \en
+newline
+.TP
+.B \er
+carriage return
+.TP
+.B \et
+horizontal tab
+.TP
+.B \ev
+vertical tab
+.TP
+.B \e\fInnn\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value \fInnn\fP
+(one to three digits)
+.TP
+.B \ex\fIHH\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value \fIHH\fP
+(one or two hex digits)
+.RE
+.PD
+.PP
+When entering the text of a macro, single or double quotes must
+be used to indicate a macro definition.
+Unquoted text is assumed to be a function name.
+In the macro body, the backslash escapes described above are expanded.
+Backslash will quote any other character in the macro text,
+including " and '.
+.PP
+.B Bash
+allows the current readline key bindings to be displayed or modified
+with the
+.B bind
+builtin command.  The editing mode may be switched during interactive
+use by using the
+.B \-o
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).
+.SS "Readline Variables"
+.PP
+Readline has variables that can be used to further customize its
+behavior.  A variable may be set in the
+.I inputrc
+file with a statement of the form
+.RS
+.PP
+\fBset\fP \fIvariable\-name\fP \fIvalue\fP
+.RE
+.PP
+Except where noted, readline variables can take the values
+.B On
+or
+.B Off
+(without regard to case).
+Unrecognized variable names are ignored.
+When a variable value is read, empty or null values, "on" (case-insensitive),
+and "1" are equivalent to \fBOn\fP.  All other values are equivalent to
+\fBOff\fP.
+The variables and their default values are:
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B bell\-style (audible)
+Controls what happens when readline wants to ring the terminal bell.
+If set to \fBnone\fP, readline never rings the bell.  If set to
+\fBvisible\fP, readline uses a visible bell if one is available.
+If set to \fBaudible\fP, readline attempts to ring the terminal's bell.
+.TP
+.B bind\-tty\-special\-chars (On)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline attempts to bind the control characters
+treated specially by the kernel's terminal driver to their readline
+equivalents.
+.TP
+.B comment\-begin (``#'')
+The string that is inserted when the readline
+.B insert\-comment
+command is executed.
+This command is bound to
+.B M\-#
+in emacs mode and to
+.B #
+in vi command mode.
+.TP
+.B completion\-ignore\-case (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline performs filename matching and completion
+in a case\-insensitive fashion.
+.TP
+.B completion\-query\-items (100)
+This determines when the user is queried about viewing
+the number of possible completions
+generated by the \fBpossible\-completions\fP command.
+It may be set to any integer value greater than or equal to
+zero.  If the number of possible completions is greater than
+or equal to the value of this variable, the user is asked whether
+or not he wishes to view them; otherwise they are simply listed
+on the terminal.
+.TP
+.B convert\-meta (On)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline will convert characters with the
+eighth bit set to an ASCII key sequence
+by stripping the eighth bit and prefixing an
+escape character (in effect, using escape as the \fImeta prefix\fP).
+.TP
+.B disable\-completion (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline will inhibit word completion.  Completion
+characters will be inserted into the line as if they had been
+mapped to \fBself-insert\fP.
+.TP
+.B editing\-mode (emacs)
+Controls whether readline begins with a set of key bindings similar
+to \fIemacs\fP or \fIvi\fP.
+.B editing\-mode
+can be set to either
+.B emacs
+or
+.BR vi .
+.TP
+.B enable\-keypad (Off)
+When set to \fBOn\fP, readline will try to enable the application
+keypad when it is called.  Some systems need this to enable the
+arrow keys.
+.TP
+.B expand\-tilde (Off)
+If set to \fBon\fP, tilde expansion is performed when readline
+attempts word completion.
+.TP
+.B history\-preserve\-point (Off)
+If set to \fBon\fP, the history code attempts to place point at the
+same location on each history line retrieved with \fBprevious-history\fP
+or \fBnext-history\fP.
+.TP
+.B horizontal\-scroll\-mode (Off)
+When set to \fBOn\fP, makes readline use a single line for display,
+scrolling the input horizontally on a single screen line when it
+becomes longer than the screen width rather than wrapping to a new line.
+.TP
+.B input\-meta (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline will enable eight-bit input (that is,
+it will not strip the high bit from the characters it reads),
+regardless of what the terminal claims it can support.  The name
+.B meta\-flag
+is a synonym for this variable.
+.TP
+.B isearch\-terminators (``C\-[C\-J'')
+The string of characters that should terminate an incremental
+search without subsequently executing the character as a command.
+If this variable has not been given a value, the characters
+\fIESC\fP and \fIC\-J\fP will terminate an incremental search.
+.TP
+.B keymap (emacs)
+Set the current readline keymap.  The set of valid keymap names is
+\fIemacs, emacs\-standard, emacs\-meta, emacs\-ctlx, vi,
+vi\-command\fP, and
+.IR vi\-insert .
+\fIvi\fP is equivalent to \fIvi\-command\fP; \fIemacs\fP is
+equivalent to \fIemacs\-standard\fP.  The default value is
+.IR emacs ;
+the value of
+.B editing\-mode
+also affects the default keymap.
+.TP
+.B mark\-directories (On)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, completed directory names have a slash
+appended.
+.TP
+.B mark\-modified\-lines (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, history lines that have been modified are displayed
+with a preceding asterisk (\fB*\fP).
+.TP
+.B mark\-symlinked\-directories (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, completed names which are symbolic links to directories
+have a slash appended (subject to the value of
+\fBmark\-directories\fP).
+.TP
+.B match\-hidden\-files (On)
+This variable, when set to \fBOn\fP, causes readline to match files whose
+names begin with a `.' (hidden files) when performing filename 
+completion, unless the leading `.' is
+supplied by the user in the filename to be completed.
+.TP
+.B output\-meta (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline will display characters with the
+eighth bit set directly rather than as a meta-prefixed escape
+sequence.
+.TP
+.B page\-completions (On)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline uses an internal \fImore\fP-like pager
+to display a screenful of possible completions at a time.
+.TP
+.B print\-completions\-horizontally (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, readline will display completions with matches
+sorted horizontally in alphabetical order, rather than down the screen.
+.TP
+.B show\-all\-if\-ambiguous (Off)
+This alters the default behavior of the completion functions.  If
+set to
+.BR on ,
+words which have more than one possible completion cause the
+matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing the bell.
+.TP
+.B show\-all\-if\-unmodified (Off)
+This alters the default behavior of the completion functions in
+a fashion similar to \fBshow\-all\-if\-ambiguous\fP.
+If set to
+.BR on ,
+words which have more than one possible completion without any
+possible partial completion (the possible completions don't share
+a common prefix) cause the matches to be listed immediately instead
+of ringing the bell.
+.TP
+.B visible\-stats (Off)
+If set to \fBOn\fP, a character denoting a file's type as reported
+by \fIstat\fP(2) is appended to the filename when listing possible
+completions.
+.PD
+.SS "Readline Conditional Constructs"
+.PP
+Readline implements a facility similar in spirit to the conditional
+compilation features of the C preprocessor which allows key
+bindings and variable settings to be performed as the result
+of tests.  There are four parser directives used.
+.IP \fB$if\fP
+The 
+.B $if
+construct allows bindings to be made based on the
+editing mode, the terminal being used, or the application using
+readline.  The text of the test extends to the end of the line;
+no characters are required to isolate it.
+.RS
+.IP \fBmode\fP
+The \fBmode=\fP form of the \fB$if\fP directive is used to test
+whether readline is in emacs or vi mode.
+This may be used in conjunction
+with the \fBset keymap\fP command, for instance, to set bindings in
+the \fIemacs\-standard\fP and \fIemacs\-ctlx\fP keymaps only if
+readline is starting out in emacs mode.
+.IP \fBterm\fP
+The \fBterm=\fP form may be used to include terminal-specific
+key bindings, perhaps to bind the key sequences output by the
+terminal's function keys.  The word on the right side of the
+.B =
+is tested against the both full name of the terminal and the portion
+of the terminal name before the first \fB\-\fP.  This allows
+.I sun
+to match both
+.I sun
+and
+.IR sun\-cmd ,
+for instance.
+.IP \fBapplication\fP
+The \fBapplication\fP construct is used to include
+application-specific settings.  Each program using the readline
+library sets the \fIapplication name\fP, and an initialization
+file can test for a particular value.
+This could be used to bind key sequences to functions useful for
+a specific program.  For instance, the following command adds a
+key sequence that quotes the current or previous word in Bash:
+.sp 1
+.RS
+.nf
+\fB$if\fP Bash
+# Quote the current or previous word
+"\eC\-xq": "\eeb\e"\eef\e""
+\fB$endif\fP
+.fi
+.RE
+.RE
+.IP \fB$endif\fP
+This command, as seen in the previous example, terminates an
+\fB$if\fP command.
+.IP \fB$else\fP
+Commands in this branch of the \fB$if\fP directive are executed if
+the test fails.
+.IP \fB$include\fP
+This directive takes a single filename as an argument and reads commands
+and bindings from that file.  For example, the following directive
+would read \fI/etc/inputrc\fP:
+.sp 1
+.RS
+.nf
+\fB$include\fP \^ \fI/etc/inputrc\fP
+.fi
+.RE
+.SS Searching
+.PP
+Readline provides commands for searching through the command history
+(see
+.SM
+.B HISTORY
+below) for lines containing a specified string.
+There are two search modes:
+.I incremental
+and
+.IR non-incremental .
+.PP
+Incremental searches begin before the user has finished typing the
+search string.
+As each character of the search string is typed, readline displays
+the next entry from the history matching the string typed so far.
+An incremental search requires only as many characters as needed to
+find the desired history entry.
+The characters present in the value of the \fBisearch-terminators\fP
+variable are used to terminate an incremental search.
+If that variable has not been assigned a value the Escape and
+Control-J characters will terminate an incremental search.
+Control-G will abort an incremental search and restore the original
+line.
+When the search is terminated, the history entry containing the
+search string becomes the current line.
+.PP
+To find other matching entries in the history list, type Control-S or
+Control-R as appropriate.
+This will search backward or forward in the history for the next
+entry matching the search string typed so far.
+Any other key sequence bound to a readline command will terminate
+the search and execute that command.
+For instance, a \fInewline\fP will terminate the search and accept
+the line, thereby executing the command from the history list.
+.PP
+Readline remembers the last incremental search string.  If two
+Control-Rs are typed without any intervening characters defining a
+new search string, any remembered search string is used.
+.PP
+Non-incremental searches read the entire search string before starting
+to search for matching history lines.  The search string may be
+typed by the user or be part of the contents of the current line.
+.SS "Readline Command Names"
+.PP
+The following is a list of the names of the commands and the default
+key sequences to which they are bound.
+Command names without an accompanying key sequence are unbound by default.
+In the following descriptions, \fIpoint\fP refers to the current cursor
+position, and \fImark\fP refers to a cursor position saved by the
+\fBset\-mark\fP command.
+The text between the point and mark is referred to as the \fIregion\fP.
+.SS Commands for Moving
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B beginning\-of\-line (C\-a)
+Move to the start of the current line.
+.TP
+.B end\-of\-line (C\-e)
+Move to the end of the line.
+.TP
+.B forward\-char (C\-f)
+Move forward a character.
+.TP
+.B backward\-char (C\-b)
+Move back a character.
+.TP
+.B forward\-word (M\-f)
+Move forward to the end of the next word.  Words are composed of
+alphanumeric characters (letters and digits).
+.TP
+.B backward\-word (M\-b)
+Move back to the start of the current or previous word.  Words are
+composed of alphanumeric characters (letters and digits).
+.TP
+.B clear\-screen (C\-l)
+Clear the screen leaving the current line at the top of the screen.
+With an argument, refresh the current line without clearing the
+screen.
+.TP
+.B redraw\-current\-line
+Refresh the current line.
+.PD
+.SS Commands for Manipulating the History
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B accept\-line (Newline, Return)
+Accept the line regardless of where the cursor is.  If this line is
+non-empty, add it to the history list according to the state of the
+.SM
+.B HISTCONTROL
+variable.  If the line is a modified history
+line, then restore the history line to its original state.
+.TP
+.B previous\-history (C\-p)
+Fetch the previous command from the history list, moving back in
+the list.
+.TP
+.B next\-history (C\-n)
+Fetch the next command from the history list, moving forward in the
+list.
+.TP
+.B beginning\-of\-history (M\-<)
+Move to the first line in the history.
+.TP
+.B end\-of\-history (M\->)
+Move to the end of the input history, i.e., the line currently being
+entered.
+.TP
+.B reverse\-search\-history (C\-r)
+Search backward starting at the current line and moving `up' through
+the history as necessary.  This is an incremental search.
+.TP
+.B forward\-search\-history (C\-s)
+Search forward starting at the current line and moving `down' through
+the history as necessary.  This is an incremental search.
+.TP
+.B non\-incremental\-reverse\-search\-history (M\-p)
+Search backward through the history starting at the current line
+using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the user.
+.TP
+.B non\-incremental\-forward\-search\-history (M\-n)
+Search forward through the history using a non-incremental search for
+a string supplied by the user.
+.TP
+.B history\-search\-forward
+Search forward through the history for the string of characters
+between the start of the current line and the point.
+This is a non-incremental search.
+.TP
+.B history\-search\-backward
+Search backward through the history for the string of characters
+between the start of the current line and the point.
+This is a non-incremental search.
+.TP
+.B yank\-nth\-arg (M\-C\-y)
+Insert the first argument to the previous command (usually
+the second word on the previous line) at point.
+With an argument
+.IR n ,
+insert the \fIn\fPth word from the previous command (the words
+in the previous command begin with word 0).  A negative argument
+inserts the \fIn\fPth word from the end of the previous command.
+Once the argument \fIn\fP is computed, the argument is extracted
+as if the "!\fIn\fP" history expansion had been specified.
+.TP
+.B
+yank\-last\-arg (M\-.\^, M\-_\^)
+Insert the last argument to the previous command (the last word of
+the previous history entry).  With an argument,
+behave exactly like \fByank\-nth\-arg\fP.
+Successive calls to \fByank\-last\-arg\fP move back through the history
+list, inserting the last argument of each line in turn.
+The history expansion facilities are used to extract the last argument,
+as if the "!$" history expansion had been specified.
+.TP
+.B shell\-expand\-line (M\-C\-e)
+Expand the line as the shell does.  This
+performs alias and history expansion as well as all of the shell
+word expansions.  See
+.SM
+.B HISTORY EXPANSION
+below for a description of history expansion.
+.TP
+.B history\-expand\-line (M\-^)
+Perform history expansion on the current line.
+See
+.SM
+.B HISTORY EXPANSION
+below for a description of history expansion.
+.TP
+.B magic\-space
+Perform history expansion on the current line and insert a space.
+See
+.SM
+.B HISTORY EXPANSION
+below for a description of history expansion.
+.TP
+.B alias\-expand\-line
+Perform alias expansion on the current line.
+See
+.SM
+.B ALIASES
+above for a description of alias expansion.
+.TP
+.B history\-and\-alias\-expand\-line
+Perform history and alias expansion on the current line.
+.TP
+.B insert\-last\-argument (M\-.\^, M\-_\^)
+A synonym for \fByank\-last\-arg\fP.
+.TP
+.B operate\-and\-get\-next (C\-o)
+Accept the current line for execution and fetch the next line
+relative to the current line from the history for editing.  Any
+argument is ignored.
+.TP
+.B edit\-and\-execute\-command (C\-xC\-e)
+Invoke an editor on the current command line, and execute the result as shell
+commands.
+\fBBash\fP attempts to invoke
+.SM
+.BR $FCEDIT ,
+.SM
+.BR $EDITOR ,
+and \fIemacs\fP as the editor, in that order.
+.PD
+.SS Commands for Changing Text
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B delete\-char (C\-d)
+Delete the character at point.  If point is at the
+beginning of the line, there are no characters in the line, and
+the last character typed was not bound to \fBdelete\-char\fP,
+then return
+.SM
+.BR EOF .
+.TP
+.B backward\-delete\-char (Rubout)
+Delete the character behind the cursor.  When given a numeric argument,
+save the deleted text on the kill ring.
+.TP
+.B forward\-backward\-delete\-char
+Delete the character under the cursor, unless the cursor is at the
+end of the line, in which case the character behind the cursor is
+deleted.
+.TP
+.B quoted\-insert (C\-q, C\-v)
+Add the next character typed to the line verbatim.  This is
+how to insert characters like \fBC\-q\fP, for example.
+.TP
+.B tab\-insert (C\-v TAB)
+Insert a tab character.
+.TP
+.B self\-insert (a,\ b,\ A,\ 1,\ !,\ ...)
+Insert the character typed.
+.TP
+.B transpose\-chars (C\-t)
+Drag the character before point forward over the character at point,
+moving point forward as well.
+If point is at the end of the line, then this transposes
+the two characters before point.
+Negative arguments have no effect.
+.TP
+.B transpose\-words (M\-t)
+Drag the word before point past the word after point,
+moving point over that word as well.
+If point is at the end of the line, this transposes
+the last two words on the line.   
+.TP
+.B upcase\-word (M\-u)
+Uppercase the current (or following) word.  With a negative argument,
+uppercase the previous word, but do not move point.
+.TP
+.B downcase\-word (M\-l)
+Lowercase the current (or following) word.  With a negative argument,
+lowercase the previous word, but do not move point.
+.TP
+.B capitalize\-word (M\-c)
+Capitalize the current (or following) word.  With a negative argument,
+capitalize the previous word, but do not move point.
+.TP
+.B overwrite\-mode
+Toggle overwrite mode.  With an explicit positive numeric argument,
+switches to overwrite mode.  With an explicit non-positive numeric
+argument, switches to insert mode.  This command affects only
+\fBemacs\fP mode; \fBvi\fP mode does overwrite differently.
+Each call to \fIreadline()\fP starts in insert mode.
+In overwrite mode, characters bound to \fBself\-insert\fP replace   
+the text at point rather than pushing the text to the right.
+Characters bound to \fBbackward\-delete\-char\fP replace the character
+before point with a space.  By default, this command is unbound.
+.PD
+.SS Killing and Yanking
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B kill\-line (C\-k)
+Kill the text from point to the end of the line.
+.TP
+.B backward\-kill\-line (C\-x Rubout)
+Kill backward to the beginning of the line.
+.TP
+.B unix\-line\-discard (C\-u)
+Kill backward from point to the beginning of the line.
+The killed text is saved on the kill-ring.
+.\" There is no real difference between this and backward-kill-line
+.TP
+.B kill\-whole\-line
+Kill all characters on the current line, no matter where point is.
+.TP
+.B kill\-word  (M\-d)
+Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between
+words, to the end of the next word.
+Word boundaries are the same as those used by \fBforward\-word\fP.
+.TP
+.B backward\-kill\-word (M\-Rubout)
+Kill the word behind point.
+Word boundaries are the same as those used by \fBbackward\-word\fP.
+.TP
+.B unix\-word\-rubout (C\-w)
+Kill the word behind point, using white space as a word boundary.
+The killed text is saved on the kill-ring.
+.TP
+.B unix\-filename\-rubout
+Kill the word behind point, using white space and the slash character
+as the word boundaries.
+The killed text is saved on the kill-ring.
+.TP
+.B delete\-horizontal\-space (M\-\e)
+Delete all spaces and tabs around point.
+.TP
+.B kill\-region
+Kill the text in the current region.
+.TP
+.B copy\-region\-as\-kill
+Copy the text in the region to the kill buffer.
+.TP
+.B copy\-backward\-word
+Copy the word before point to the kill buffer.
+The word boundaries are the same as \fBbackward\-word\fP.
+.TP
+.B copy\-forward\-word
+Copy the word following point to the kill buffer.
+The word boundaries are the same as \fBforward\-word\fP.
+.TP
+.B yank (C\-y)
+Yank the top of the kill ring into the buffer at point.
+.TP
+.B yank\-pop (M\-y)
+Rotate the kill ring, and yank the new top.  Only works following
+.B yank
+or
+.BR yank\-pop .
+.PD
+.SS Numeric Arguments
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B digit\-argument (M\-0, M\-1, ..., M\-\-)
+Add this digit to the argument already accumulating, or start a new
+argument.  M\-\- starts a negative argument.
+.TP
+.B universal\-argument
+This is another way to specify an argument.
+If this command is followed by one or more digits, optionally with a
+leading minus sign, those digits define the argument.
+If the command is followed by digits, executing
+.B universal\-argument
+again ends the numeric argument, but is otherwise ignored.
+As a special case, if this command is immediately followed by a
+character that is neither a digit or minus sign, the argument count
+for the next command is multiplied by four.
+The argument count is initially one, so executing this function the
+first time makes the argument count four, a second time makes the
+argument count sixteen, and so on.
+.PD
+.SS Completing
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B complete (TAB)
+Attempt to perform completion on the text before point.
+.B Bash
+attempts completion treating the text as a variable (if the
+text begins with \fB$\fP), username (if the text begins with
+\fB~\fP), hostname (if the text begins with \fB@\fP), or
+command (including aliases and functions) in turn.  If none
+of these produces a match, filename completion is attempted.
+.TP
+.B possible\-completions (M\-?)
+List the possible completions of the text before point.
+.TP
+.B insert\-completions (M\-*)
+Insert all completions of the text before point
+that would have been generated by
+\fBpossible\-completions\fP.
+.TP
+.B menu\-complete
+Similar to \fBcomplete\fP, but replaces the word to be completed
+with a single match from the list of possible completions.
+Repeated execution of \fBmenu\-complete\fP steps through the list
+of possible completions, inserting each match in turn.
+At the end of the list of completions, the bell is rung
+(subject to the setting of \fBbell\-style\fP)
+and the original text is restored.
+An argument of \fIn\fP moves \fIn\fP positions forward in the list
+of matches; a negative argument may be used to move backward
+through the list.
+This command is intended to be bound to \fBTAB\fP, but is unbound
+by default.
+.TP
+.B delete\-char\-or\-list
+Deletes the character under the cursor if not at the beginning or
+end of the line (like \fBdelete\-char\fP).
+If at the end of the line, behaves identically to
+\fBpossible\-completions\fP.
+This command is unbound by default.
+.TP
+.B complete\-filename (M\-/)
+Attempt filename completion on the text before point.
+.TP
+.B possible\-filename\-completions (C\-x /)
+List the possible completions of the text before point,
+treating it as a filename.
+.TP
+.B complete\-username (M\-~)
+Attempt completion on the text before point, treating
+it as a username.
+.TP
+.B possible\-username\-completions (C\-x ~)
+List the possible completions of the text before point,
+treating it as a username.
+.TP
+.B complete\-variable (M\-$)
+Attempt completion on the text before point, treating
+it as a shell variable.
+.TP
+.B possible\-variable\-completions (C\-x $)
+List the possible completions of the text before point,
+treating it as a shell variable.
+.TP
+.B complete\-hostname (M\-@)
+Attempt completion on the text before point, treating
+it as a hostname.
+.TP
+.B possible\-hostname\-completions (C\-x @)
+List the possible completions of the text before point,
+treating it as a hostname.
+.TP
+.B complete\-command (M\-!)
+Attempt completion on the text before point, treating
+it as a command name.  Command completion attempts to
+match the text against aliases, reserved words, shell
+functions, shell builtins, and finally executable filenames,
+in that order.
+.TP
+.B possible\-command\-completions (C\-x !)
+List the possible completions of the text before point,
+treating it as a command name.
+.TP
+.B dynamic\-complete\-history (M\-TAB)
+Attempt completion on the text before point, comparing
+the text against lines from the history list for possible
+completion matches.
+.TP
+.B complete\-into\-braces (M\-{)
+Perform filename completion and insert the list of possible completions
+enclosed within braces so the list is available to the shell (see
+.B Brace Expansion
+above).
+.PD
+.SS Keyboard Macros
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B start\-kbd\-macro (C\-x (\^)
+Begin saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro.
+.TP
+.B end\-kbd\-macro (C\-x )\^)
+Stop saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro
+and store the definition.
+.TP
+.B call\-last\-kbd\-macro (C\-x e)
+Re-execute the last keyboard macro defined, by making the characters
+in the macro appear as if typed at the keyboard.
+.PD
+.SS Miscellaneous
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B re\-read\-init\-file (C\-x C\-r)
+Read in the contents of the \fIinputrc\fP file, and incorporate
+any bindings or variable assignments found there.
+.TP
+.B abort (C\-g)
+Abort the current editing command and
+ring the terminal's bell (subject to the setting of
+.BR bell\-style ).
+.TP
+.B do\-uppercase\-version (M\-a, M\-b, M\-\fIx\fP, ...)
+If the metafied character \fIx\fP is lowercase, run the command
+that is bound to the corresponding uppercase character.
+.TP
+.B prefix\-meta (ESC)
+Metafy the next character typed.
+.SM
+.B ESC
+.B f
+is equivalent to
+.BR Meta\-f .
+.TP
+.B undo (C\-_, C\-x C\-u)
+Incremental undo, separately remembered for each line.
+.TP
+.B revert\-line (M\-r)
+Undo all changes made to this line.  This is like executing the
+.B undo
+command enough times to return the line to its initial state.
+.TP
+.B tilde\-expand (M\-&)
+Perform tilde expansion on the current word.
+.TP
+.B set\-mark (C\-@, M\-<space>)
+Set the mark to the point.  If a
+numeric argument is supplied, the mark is set to that position.
+.TP
+.B exchange\-point\-and\-mark (C\-x C\-x)
+Swap the point with the mark.  The current cursor position is set to
+the saved position, and the old cursor position is saved as the mark.
+.TP
+.B character\-search (C\-])
+A character is read and point is moved to the next occurrence of that
+character.  A negative count searches for previous occurrences.
+.TP
+.B character\-search\-backward (M\-C\-])
+A character is read and point is moved to the previous occurrence of that
+character.  A negative count searches for subsequent occurrences.
+.TP
+.B insert\-comment (M\-#)
+Without a numeric argument, the value of the readline
+.B comment\-begin
+variable is inserted at the beginning of the current line.
+If a numeric argument is supplied, this command acts as a toggle:  if
+the characters at the beginning of the line do not match the value
+of \fBcomment\-begin\fP, the value is inserted, otherwise
+the characters in \fBcomment-begin\fP are deleted from the beginning of 
+the line.
+In either case, the line is accepted as if a newline had been typed.
+The default value of
+\fBcomment\-begin\fP causes this command to make the current line
+a shell comment.
+If a numeric argument causes the comment character to be removed, the line
+will be executed by the shell.
+.TP
+.B glob\-complete\-word (M\-g)
+The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion,
+with an asterisk implicitly appended.  This pattern is used to
+generate a list of matching file names for possible completions.
+.TP
+.B glob\-expand\-word (C\-x *)
+The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname expansion,
+and the list of matching file names is inserted, replacing the word.
+If a numeric argument is supplied, an asterisk is appended before
+pathname expansion.
+.TP
+.B glob\-list\-expansions (C\-x g)
+The list of expansions that would have been generated by
+.B glob\-expand\-word
+is displayed, and the line is redrawn.
+If a numeric argument is supplied, an asterisk is appended before
+pathname expansion.
+.TP
+.B dump\-functions
+Print all of the functions and their key bindings to the
+readline output stream.  If a numeric argument is supplied,
+the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part
+of an \fIinputrc\fP file.
+.TP
+.B dump\-variables
+Print all of the settable readline variables and their values to the
+readline output stream.  If a numeric argument is supplied,
+the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part
+of an \fIinputrc\fP file.
+.TP
+.B dump\-macros
+Print all of the readline key sequences bound to macros and the
+strings they output.  If a numeric argument is supplied,
+the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part
+of an \fIinputrc\fP file.
+.TP
+.B display\-shell\-version (C\-x C\-v)
+Display version information about the current instance of
+.BR bash .
+.PD
+.SS Programmable Completion
+.PP
+When word completion is attempted for an argument to a command for
+which a completion specification (a \fIcompspec\fP) has been defined
+using the \fBcomplete\fP builtin (see
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below), the programmable completion facilities are invoked.
+.PP
+First, the command name is identified.
+If a compspec has been defined for that command, the
+compspec is used to generate the list of possible completions for the word.
+If the command word is a full pathname, a compspec for the full
+pathname is searched for first.
+If no compspec is found for the full pathname, an attempt is made to
+find a compspec for the portion following the final slash.
+.PP
+Once a compspec has been found, it is used to generate the list of
+matching words.
+If a compspec is not found, the default \fBbash\fP completion as
+described above under \fBCompleting\fP is performed.
+.PP
+First, the actions specified by the compspec are used.
+Only matches which are prefixed by the word being completed are
+returned.
+When the
+.B \-f
+or
+.B \-d
+option is used for filename or directory name completion, the shell
+variable
+.SM
+.B FIGNORE
+is used to filter the matches.
+.PP
+Any completions specified by a filename expansion pattern to the
+\fB\-G\fP option are generated next.
+The words generated by the pattern need not match the word
+being completed.
+The
+.SM
+.B GLOBIGNORE
+shell variable is not used to filter the matches, but the
+.SM
+.B FIGNORE
+variable is used.
+.PP
+Next, the string specified as the argument to the \fB\-W\fP option
+is considered.
+The string is first split using the characters in the
+.SM
+.B IFS
+special variable as delimiters.
+Shell quoting is honored.
+Each word is then expanded using
+brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
+command substitution, and arithmetic expansion,
+as described above under 
+.SM
+.BR EXPANSION .
+The results are split using the rules described above under
+\fBWord Splitting\fP.
+The results of the expansion are prefix-matched against the word being
+completed, and the matching words become the possible completions.
+.PP
+After these matches have been generated, any shell function or command
+specified with the \fB\-F\fP and \fB\-C\fP options is invoked.
+When the command or function is invoked, the
+.SM
+.B COMP_LINE
+and
+.SM
+.B COMP_POINT
+variables are assigned values as described above under
+\fBShell Variables\fP.
+If a shell function is being invoked, the 
+.SM
+.B COMP_WORDS
+and
+.SM
+.B COMP_CWORD
+variables are also set.
+When the function or command is invoked, the first argument is the
+name of the command whose arguments are being completed, the
+second argument is the word being completed, and the third argument
+is the word preceding the word being completed on the current command line.
+No filtering of the generated completions against the word being completed
+is performed; the function or command has complete freedom in generating
+the matches.
+.PP
+Any function specified with \fB\-F\fP is invoked first.
+The function may use any of the shell facilities, including the
+\fBcompgen\fP builtin described below, to generate the matches.
+It must put the possible completions in the
+.SM
+.B COMPREPLY
+array variable.
+.PP
+Next, any command specified with the \fB\-C\fP option is invoked
+in an environment equivalent to command substitution.
+It should print a list of completions, one per line, to the
+standard output.
+Backslash may be used to escape a newline, if necessary.
+.PP
+After all of the possible completions are generated, any filter
+specified with the \fB\-X\fP option is applied to the list.
+The filter is a pattern as used for pathname expansion; a \fB&\fP
+in the pattern is replaced with the text of the word being completed.
+A literal \fB&\fP may be escaped with a backslash; the backslash
+is removed before attempting a match.
+Any completion that matches the pattern will be removed from the list.
+A leading \fB!\fP negates the pattern; in this case any completion
+not matching the pattern will be removed.
+.PP
+Finally, any prefix and suffix specified with the \fB\-P\fP and \fB\-S\fP
+options are added to each member of the completion list, and the result is
+returned to the readline completion code as the list of possible
+completions.
+.PP
+If the previously-applied actions do not generate any matches, and the
+\fB\-o dirnames\fP option was supplied to \fBcomplete\fP when the
+compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted.
+.PP
+If the \fB\-o plusdirs\fP option was supplied to \fBcomplete\fP when the
+compspec was defined, directory name completion is attempted and any
+matches are added to the results of the other actions.
+.PP
+By default, if a compspec is found, whatever it generates is returned
+to the completion code as the full set of possible completions.
+The default \fBbash\fP completions are not attempted, and the readline
+default of filename completion is disabled.
+If the \fB\-o bashdefault\fP option was supplied to \fBcomplete\fP when
+the compspec was defined, the \fBbash\fP default completions are attempted
+if the compspec generates no matches.
+If the \fB\-o default\fP option was supplied to \fBcomplete\fP when the
+compspec was defined, readline's default completion will be performed
+if the compspec (and, if attempted, the default \fBbash\fP completions)
+generate no matches.
+.PP
+When a compspec indicates that directory name completion is desired,
+the programmable completion functions force readline to append a slash
+to completed names which are symbolic links to directories, subject to  
+the value of the \fBmark\-directories\fP readline variable, regardless
+of the setting of the \fBmark-symlinked\-directories\fP readline variable.
+.SH HISTORY
+When the
+.B \-o history
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin is enabled, the shell provides access to the
+\fIcommand history\fP,
+the list of commands previously typed.
+The value of the \fBHISTSIZE\fP variable is used as the
+number of commands to save in a history list.
+The text of the last
+.SM
+.B HISTSIZE
+commands (default 500) is saved.  The shell
+stores each command in the history list prior to parameter and
+variable expansion (see
+.SM
+.B EXPANSION
+above) but after history expansion is performed, subject to the
+values of the shell variables
+.SM
+.B HISTIGNORE
+and
+.SM
+.BR HISTCONTROL .
+.PP
+On startup, the history is initialized from the file named by
+the variable
+.SM
+.B HISTFILE
+(default \fI~/.bash_history\fP).
+The file named by the value of
+.SM
+.B HISTFILE
+is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than
+the number of lines specified by the value of
+.SM
+.BR HISTFILESIZE .
+When an interactive shell exits, the last
+.SM
+.B $HISTSIZE
+lines are copied from the history list to
+.SM
+.BR $HISTFILE .
+If the
+.B histappend
+shell option is enabled
+(see the description of
+.B shopt
+under
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+below), the lines are appended to the history file,
+otherwise the history file is overwritten.
+If
+.SM
+.B HISTFILE
+is unset, or if the history file is unwritable, the history is
+not saved.  After saving the history, the history file is truncated
+to contain no more than
+.SM
+.B HISTFILESIZE
+lines.  If
+.SM
+.B HISTFILESIZE
+is not set, no truncation is performed.
+.PP
+The builtin command
+.B fc
+(see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below) may be used to list or edit and re-execute a portion of
+the history list.
+The
+.B history
+builtin may be used to display or modify the history list and
+manipulate the history file.
+When using command-line editing, search commands
+are available in each editing mode that provide access to the
+history list.
+.PP
+The shell allows control over which commands are saved on the history
+list.  The
+.SM
+.B HISTCONTROL
+and
+.SM
+.B HISTIGNORE
+variables may be set to cause the shell to save only a subset of the
+commands entered.
+The
+.B cmdhist
+shell option, if enabled, causes the shell to attempt to save each
+line of a multi-line command in the same history entry, adding
+semicolons where necessary to preserve syntactic correctness.
+The
+.B lithist
+shell option causes the shell to save the command with embedded newlines
+instead of semicolons.  See the description of the
+.B shopt
+builtin below under
+.SM
+.B "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+for information on setting and unsetting shell options.
+.SH "HISTORY EXPANSION"
+.PP
+The shell supports a history expansion feature that
+is similar to the history expansion in
+.BR csh.
+This section describes what syntax features are available.  This
+feature is enabled by default for interactive shells, and can be
+disabled using the
+.B \+H
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
+below).  Non-interactive shells do not perform history expansion
+by default.
+.PP
+History expansions introduce words from the history list into
+the input stream, making it easy to repeat commands, insert the
+arguments to a previous command into the current input line, or
+fix errors in previous commands quickly.
+.PP
+History expansion is performed immediately after a complete line
+is read, before the shell breaks it into words.
+It takes place in two parts.
+The first is to determine which line from the history list
+to use during substitution.
+The second is to select portions of that line for inclusion into
+the current one.
+The line selected from the history is the \fIevent\fP,
+and the portions of that line that are acted upon are \fIwords\fP.
+Various \fImodifiers\fP are available to manipulate the selected words.
+The line is broken into words in the same fashion as when reading input,
+so that several \fImetacharacter\fP-separated words surrounded by
+quotes are considered one word.
+History expansions are introduced by the appearance of the
+history expansion character, which is \^\fB!\fP\^ by default.
+Only backslash (\^\fB\e\fP\^) and single quotes can quote
+the history expansion character.
+.PP
+Several characters inhibit history expansion if found immediately
+following the history expansion character, even if it is unquoted:
+space, tab, newline, carriage return, and \fB=\fP.
+If the \fBextglob\fP shell option is enabled, \fB(\fP will also
+inhibit expansion.
+.PP
+Several shell options settable with the
+.B shopt
+builtin may be used to tailor the behavior of history expansion.
+If the
+.B histverify
+shell option is enabled (see the description of the
+.B shopt
+builtin), and
+.B readline
+is being used, history substitutions are not immediately passed to
+the shell parser.
+Instead, the expanded line is reloaded into the
+.B readline
+editing buffer for further modification.
+If
+.B readline
+is being used, and the
+.B histreedit
+shell option is enabled, a failed history substitution will be reloaded
+into the
+.B readline
+editing buffer for correction.
+The
+.B \-p
+option to the
+.B history
+builtin command may be used to see what a history expansion will
+do before using it.
+The
+.B \-s
+option to the
+.B history
+builtin may be used to add commands to the end of the history list
+without actually executing them, so that they are available for
+subsequent recall.
+.PP
+The shell allows control of the various characters used by the
+history expansion mechanism (see the description of
+.B histchars
+above under
+.BR "Shell Variables" ).
+.SS Event Designators
+.PP
+An event designator is a reference to a command line entry in the
+history list.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B !
+Start a history substitution, except when followed by a
+.BR blank ,
+newline, carriage return, =
+or ( (when the \fBextglob\fP shell option is enabled using
+the \fBshopt\fP builtin).
+.TP
+.B !\fIn\fR
+Refer to command line
+.IR n .
+.TP
+.B !\-\fIn\fR
+Refer to the current command line minus
+.IR n .
+.TP
+.B !!
+Refer to the previous command.  This is a synonym for `!\-1'.
+.TP
+.B !\fIstring\fR
+Refer to the most recent command starting with 
+.IR string .
+.TP
+.B !?\fIstring\fR\fB[?]\fR
+Refer to the most recent command containing
+.IR string .
+The trailing \fB?\fP may be omitted if
+.I string
+is followed immediately by a newline.
+.TP
+.B \d\s+2^\s-2\u\fIstring1\fP\d\s+2^\s-2\u\fIstring2\fP\d\s+2^\s-2\u
+Quick substitution.  Repeat the last command, replacing
+.I string1
+with
+.IR string2 .
+Equivalent to
+``!!:s/\fIstring1\fP/\fIstring2\fP/''
+(see \fBModifiers\fP below).
+.TP
+.B !#
+The entire command line typed so far.
+.PD
+.SS Word Designators
+.PP
+Word designators are used to select desired words from the event.
+A 
+.B :
+separates the event specification from the word designator.
+It may be omitted if the word designator begins with a
+.BR ^ ,
+.BR $ ,
+.BR * ,
+.BR \- ,
+or
+.BR % .
+Words are numbered from the beginning of the line,
+with the first word being denoted by 0 (zero).
+Words are inserted into the current line separated by single spaces.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B 0 (zero)
+The zeroth word.  For the shell, this is the command
+word.
+.TP
+.I n
+The \fIn\fRth word.
+.TP
+.B ^
+The first argument.  That is, word 1.
+.TP
+.B $
+The last argument.
+.TP
+.B %
+The word matched by the most recent `?\fIstring\fR?' search.
+.TP
+.I x\fB\-\fPy
+A range of words; `\-\fIy\fR' abbreviates `0\-\fIy\fR'.
+.TP
+.B *
+All of the words but the zeroth.  This is a synonym
+for `\fI1\-$\fP'.  It is not an error to use
+.B *
+if there is just one
+word in the event; the empty string is returned in that case.
+.TP
+.B x*
+Abbreviates \fIx\-$\fP.
+.TP
+.B x\-
+Abbreviates \fIx\-$\fP like \fBx*\fP, but omits the last word.
+.PD
+.PP
+If a word designator is supplied without an event specification, the
+previous command is used as the event.
+.SS Modifiers
+.PP
+After the optional word designator, there may appear a sequence of
+one or more of the following modifiers, each preceded by a `:'.
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.PP
+.TP
+.B h
+Remove a trailing file name component, leaving only the head.
+.TP
+.B t
+Remove all leading file name components, leaving the tail.
+.TP
+.B r
+Remove a trailing suffix of the form \fI.xxx\fP, leaving the
+basename.
+.TP
+.B e
+Remove all but the trailing suffix.
+.TP
+.B p
+Print the new command but do not execute it.
+.TP
+.B q
+Quote the substituted words, escaping further substitutions.
+.TP
+.B x
+Quote the substituted words as with
+.BR q ,
+but break into words at
+.B blanks
+and newlines.
+.TP
+.B s/\fIold\fP/\fInew\fP/
+Substitute
+.I new
+for the first occurrence of
+.I old
+in the event line.  Any delimiter can be used in place of /.  The
+final delimiter is optional if it is the last character of the
+event line.  The delimiter may be quoted in
+.I old
+and
+.I new
+with a single backslash.  If & appears in
+.IR new ,
+it is replaced by
+.IR old .
+A single backslash will quote the &.  If
+.I old
+is null, it is set to the last
+.I old
+substituted, or, if no previous history substitutions took place,
+the last
+.I string
+in a
+.B !?\fIstring\fR\fB[?]\fR
+search.
+.TP
+.B &
+Repeat the previous substitution.
+.TP
+.B g
+Cause changes to be applied over the entire event line.  This is
+used in conjunction with `\fB:s\fP' (e.g., `\fB:gs/\fIold\fP/\fInew\fP/\fR')
+or `\fB:&\fP'.  If used with
+`\fB:s\fP', any delimiter can be used
+in place of /, and the final delimiter is optional
+if it is the last character of the event line.
+An \fBa\fP may be used as a synonym for \fBg\fP.
+.TP
+.B G
+Apply the following `\fBs\fP' modifier once to each word in the event line.
+.PD
+.SH "SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS"
+.\" start of bash_builtins
+.zZ
+.PP
+Unless otherwise noted, each builtin command documented in this
+section as accepting options preceded by
+.B \-
+accepts
+.B \-\-
+to signify the end of the options.
+For example, the \fB:\fP, \fBtrue\fP, \fBfalse\fP, and \fBtest\fP builtins
+do not accept options.
+.sp .5
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB:\fP [\fIarguments\fP]
+.PD
+No effect; the command does nothing beyond expanding
+.I arguments
+and performing any specified
+redirections.  A zero exit code is returned.
+.TP
+\fB .\| \fP \fIfilename\fP [\fIarguments\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBsource\fP \fIfilename\fP [\fIarguments\fP]
+.PD
+Read and execute commands from
+.I filename
+in the current
+shell environment and return the exit status of the last command
+executed from
+.IR filename .
+If
+.I filename
+does not contain a slash, file names in
+.SM
+.B PATH
+are used to find the directory containing
+.IR filename .
+The file searched for in
+.SM
+.B PATH
+need not be executable.
+When \fBbash\fP is not in \fIposix mode\fP, the current directory is
+searched if no file is found in
+.SM
+.BR PATH .
+If the
+.B sourcepath
+option to the
+.B shopt
+builtin command is turned off, the
+.SM
+.B PATH
+is not searched.
+If any \fIarguments\fP are supplied, they become the positional
+parameters when \fIfilename\fP is executed.  Otherwise the positional
+parameters are unchanged.
+The return status is the status of the last command exited within
+the script (0 if no commands are executed), and false if
+.I filename
+is not found or cannot be read.
+.TP
+\fBalias\fP [\fB\-p\fP] [\fIname\fP[=\fIvalue\fP] ...]
+\fBAlias\fP with no arguments or with the
+.B \-p
+option prints the list of aliases in the form
+\fBalias\fP \fIname\fP=\fIvalue\fP on standard output.
+When arguments are supplied, an alias is defined for
+each \fIname\fP whose \fIvalue\fP is given.
+A trailing space in  \fIvalue\fP causes the next word to be
+checked for alias substitution when the alias is expanded.
+For each \fIname\fP in the argument list for which no \fIvalue\fP
+is supplied, the name and value of the alias is printed.
+\fBAlias\fP returns true unless a \fIname\fP is given for which
+no alias has been defined.
+.TP
+\fBbg\fP [\fIjobspec\fP ...]
+Resume each suspended job \fIjobspec\fP in the background, as if it
+had been started with
+.BR & .
+If \fIjobspec\fP is not present, the shell's notion of the
+\fIcurrent job\fP is used.
+.B bg
+.I jobspec
+returns 0 unless run when job control is disabled or, when run with
+job control enabled, any specified \fIjobspec\fP was not found
+or was started without job control.
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP [\fB\-m\fP \fIkeymap\fP] [\fB\-lpsvPSV\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP [\fB\-m\fP \fIkeymap\fP] [\fB\-q\fP \fIfunction\fP] [\fB\-u\fP \fIfunction\fP] [\fB\-r\fP \fIkeyseq\fP]
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP [\fB\-m\fP \fIkeymap\fP] \fB\-f\fP \fIfilename\fP
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP [\fB\-m\fP \fIkeymap\fP] \fB\-x\fP \fIkeyseq\fP:\fIshell\-command\fP
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP [\fB\-m\fP \fIkeymap\fP] \fIkeyseq\fP:\fIfunction\-name\fP
+.TP
+\fBbind\fP \fIreadline\-command\fP
+.PD
+Display current
+.B readline
+key and function bindings, bind a key sequence to a
+.B readline
+function or macro, or set a
+.B readline
+variable.
+Each non-option argument is a command as it would appear in
+.IR .inputrc ,
+but each binding or command must be passed as a separate argument;
+e.g., '"\eC\-x\eC\-r": re\-read\-init\-file'.
+Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-m \fIkeymap\fP
+Use
+.I keymap
+as the keymap to be affected by the subsequent bindings.
+Acceptable
+.I keymap
+names are
+\fIemacs, emacs\-standard, emacs\-meta, emacs\-ctlx, vi,
+vi\-move, vi\-command\fP, and
+.IR vi\-insert .
+\fIvi\fP is equivalent to \fIvi\-command\fP; \fIemacs\fP is
+equivalent to \fIemacs\-standard\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-l
+List the names of all \fBreadline\fP functions.
+.TP
+.B \-p
+Display \fBreadline\fP function names and bindings in such a way
+that they can be re-read.
+.TP
+.B \-P
+List current \fBreadline\fP function names and bindings.
+.TP
+.B \-v
+Display \fBreadline\fP variable names and values in such a way that they
+can be re-read.
+.TP
+.B \-V
+List current \fBreadline\fP variable names and values.
+.TP
+.B \-s
+Display \fBreadline\fP key sequences bound to macros and the strings
+they output in such a way that they can be re-read.
+.TP
+.B \-S
+Display \fBreadline\fP key sequences bound to macros and the strings
+they output.
+.TP
+.B \-f \fIfilename\fP
+Read key bindings from \fIfilename\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-q \fIfunction\fP
+Query about which keys invoke the named \fIfunction\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-u \fIfunction\fP
+Unbind all keys bound to the named \fIfunction\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-r \fIkeyseq\fP
+Remove any current binding for \fIkeyseq\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-x \fIkeyseq\fP:\fIshell\-command\fP
+Cause \fIshell\-command\fP to be executed whenever \fIkeyseq\fP is
+entered.
+.PD
+.PP
+The return value is 0 unless an unrecognized option is given or an
+error occurred.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBbreak\fP [\fIn\fP]
+Exit from within a
+.BR for ,
+.BR while ,
+.BR until ,
+or
+.B select
+loop.  If \fIn\fP is specified, break \fIn\fP levels.
+.I n
+must be \(>= 1.  If
+.I n
+is greater than the number of enclosing loops, all enclosing loops
+are exited.  The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing
+a loop when
+.B break
+is executed.
+.TP
+\fBbuiltin\fP \fIshell\-builtin\fP [\fIarguments\fP]
+Execute the specified shell builtin, passing it
+.IR arguments ,
+and return its exit status.
+This is useful when defining a
+function whose name is the same as a shell builtin,
+retaining the functionality of the builtin within the function.
+The \fBcd\fP builtin is commonly redefined this way.
+The return status is false if
+.I shell\-builtin
+is not a shell builtin command.
+.TP
+\fBcd\fP [\fB\-L|-P\fP] [\fIdir\fP]
+Change the current directory to \fIdir\fP.  The variable
+.SM
+.B HOME
+is the
+default
+.IR dir .
+The variable
+.SM
+.B CDPATH
+defines the search path for the directory containing
+.IR dir .
+Alternative directory names in
+.SM
+.B CDPATH
+are separated by a colon (:).  A null directory name in
+.SM
+.B CDPATH
+is the same as the current directory, i.e., ``\fB.\fP''.  If
+.I dir
+begins with a slash (/),
+then
+.SM
+.B CDPATH
+is not used. The
+.B \-P
+option says to use the physical directory structure instead of
+following symbolic links (see also the
+.B \-P
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command); the
+.B \-L
+option forces symbolic links to be followed.  An argument of
+.B \-
+is equivalent to
+.SM
+.BR $OLDPWD .
+If a non-empty directory name from \fBCDPATH\fP is used, or if
+\fB\-\fP is the first argument, and the directory change is
+successful, the absolute pathname of the new working directory is
+written to the standard output.
+The return value is true if the directory was successfully changed;
+false otherwise.
+.TP
+\fBcaller\fP [\fIexpr\fP]
+Returns the context of any active subroutine call (a shell function or
+a script executed with the \fB.\fP or \fBsource\fP builtins.
+Without \fIexpr\fP, \fBcaller\fP displays the line number and source
+filename of the current subroutine call.
+If a non-negative integer is supplied as \fIexpr\fP, \fBcaller\fP 
+displays the line number, subroutine name, and source file corresponding
+to that position in the current execution call stack.  This extra
+information may be used, for example, to print a stack trace.  The
+current frame is frame 0.
+The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing a subroutine
+call or \fIexpr\fP does not correspond to a valid position in the
+call stack.
+.TP
+\fBcommand\fP [\fB\-pVv\fP] \fIcommand\fP [\fIarg\fP ...]
+Run
+.I command
+with
+.I args
+suppressing the normal shell function lookup. Only builtin
+commands or commands found in the
+.SM
+.B PATH
+are executed.  If the
+.B \-p
+option is given, the search for
+.I command
+is performed using a default value for
+.B PATH
+that is guaranteed to find all of the standard utilities.
+If either the
+.B \-V
+or
+.B \-v
+option is supplied, a description of
+.I command
+is printed.  The
+.B \-v
+option causes a single word indicating the command or file name
+used to invoke
+.I command
+to be displayed; the
+.B \-V
+option produces a more verbose description.
+If the
+.B \-V
+or
+.B \-v
+option is supplied, the exit status is 0 if
+.I command
+was found, and 1 if not.  If neither option is supplied and
+an error occurred or
+.I command
+cannot be found, the exit status is 127.  Otherwise, the exit status of the
+.B command
+builtin is the exit status of
+.IR command .
+.TP
+\fBcompgen\fP [\fIoption\fP] [\fIword\fP]
+Generate possible completion matches for \fIword\fP according to
+the \fIoption\fPs, which may be any option accepted by the
+.B complete
+builtin with the exception of \fB\-p\fP and \fB\-r\fP, and write
+the matches to the standard output.
+When using the \fB\-F\fP or \fB\-C\fP options, the various shell variables
+set by the programmable completion facilities, while available, will not
+have useful values.
+.sp 1
+The matches will be generated in the same way as if the programmable
+completion code had generated them directly from a completion specification
+with the same flags.
+If \fIword\fP is specified, only those completions matching \fIword\fP
+will be displayed.
+.sp 1
+The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, or no
+matches were generated.
+.TP
+\fBcomplete\fP [\fB\-abcdefgjksuv\fP] [\fB\-o\fP \fIcomp-option\fP] [\fB\-A\fP \fIaction\fP] [\fB\-G\fP \fIglobpat\fP] [\fB\-W\fP \fIwordlist\fP] [\fB\-P\fP \fIprefix\fP] [\fB\-S\fP \fIsuffix\fP]
+.br
+[\fB\-X\fP \fIfilterpat\fP] [\fB\-F\fP \fIfunction\fP] [\fB\-C\fP \fIcommand\fP] \fIname\fP [\fIname ...\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBcomplete\fP \fB\-pr\fP [\fIname\fP ...]
+.PD
+Specify how arguments to each \fIname\fP should be completed.
+If the \fB\-p\fP option is supplied, or if no options are supplied,
+existing completion specifications are printed in a way that allows
+them to be reused as input.
+The \fB\-r\fP option removes a completion specification for
+each \fIname\fP, or, if no \fIname\fPs are supplied, all
+completion specifications.
+.sp 1
+The process of applying these completion specifications when word completion
+is attempted is described above under \fBProgrammable Completion\fP.
+.sp 1
+Other options, if specified, have the following meanings.
+The arguments to the \fB\-G\fP, \fB\-W\fP, and \fB\-X\fP options
+(and, if necessary, the \fB\-P\fP and \fB\-S\fP options)
+should be quoted to protect them from expansion before the
+.B complete
+builtin is invoked.
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP 8
+\fB\-o\fP \fIcomp-option\fP
+The \fIcomp-option\fP controls several aspects of the compspec's behavior
+beyond the simple generation of completions.
+\fIcomp-option\fP may be one of:
+.RS
+.TP 8
+.B bashdefault
+Perform the rest of the default \fBbash\fP completions if the compspec
+generates no matches.
+.TP 8
+.B default
+Use readline's default filename completion if the compspec generates
+no matches.
+.TP 8
+.B dirnames
+Perform directory name completion if the compspec generates no matches.
+.TP 8
+.B filenames
+Tell readline that the compspec generates filenames, so it can perform any
+filename\-specific processing (like adding a slash to directory names or
+suppressing trailing spaces).  Intended to be used with shell functions.
+.TP 8
+.B nospace
+Tell readline not to append a space (the default) to words completed at
+the end of the line.
+.TP 8
+.B plusdirs
+After any matches defined by the compspec are generated, 
+directory name completion is attempted and any
+matches are added to the results of the other actions.
+.RE
+.TP 8
+\fB\-A\fP \fIaction\fP
+The \fIaction\fP may be one of the following to generate a list of possible
+completions:
+.RS
+.TP 8
+.B alias
+Alias names.  May also be specified as \fB\-a\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B arrayvar
+Array variable names.
+.TP 8
+.B binding
+\fBReadline\fP key binding names.
+.TP 8
+.B builtin
+Names of shell builtin commands.  May also be specified as \fB\-b\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B command
+Command names.  May also be specified as \fB\-c\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B directory
+Directory names.  May also be specified as \fB\-d\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B disabled
+Names of disabled shell builtins.
+.TP 8
+.B enabled
+Names of enabled shell builtins.
+.TP 8
+.B export
+Names of exported shell variables.  May also be specified as \fB\-e\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B file
+File names.  May also be specified as \fB\-f\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B function
+Names of shell functions.
+.TP 8
+.B group
+Group names.  May also be specified as \fB\-g\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B helptopic
+Help topics as accepted by the \fBhelp\fP builtin.
+.TP 8
+.B hostname
+Hostnames, as taken from the file specified by the
+.SM
+.B HOSTFILE
+shell variable.
+.TP 8
+.B job
+Job names, if job control is active.  May also be specified as \fB\-j\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B keyword
+Shell reserved words.  May also be specified as \fB\-k\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B running
+Names of running jobs, if job control is active.
+.TP 8
+.B service
+Service names.  May also be specified as \fB\-s\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B setopt
+Valid arguments for the \fB\-o\fP option to the \fBset\fP builtin.
+.TP 8
+.B shopt
+Shell option names as accepted by the \fBshopt\fP builtin.
+.TP 8
+.B signal
+Signal names.
+.TP 8
+.B stopped
+Names of stopped jobs, if job control is active.
+.TP 8
+.B user
+User names.  May also be specified as \fB\-u\fP.
+.TP 8
+.B variable
+Names of all shell variables.  May also be specified as \fB\-v\fP.
+.RE
+.TP 8
+\fB\-G\fP \fIglobpat\fP
+The filename expansion pattern \fIglobpat\fP is expanded to generate
+the possible completions.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-W\fP \fIwordlist\fP
+The \fIwordlist\fP is split using the characters in the
+.SM
+.B IFS
+special variable as delimiters, and each resultant word is expanded.
+The possible completions are the members of the resultant list which
+match the word being completed.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-C\fP \fIcommand\fP
+\fIcommand\fP is executed in a subshell environment, and its output is
+used as the possible completions.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-F\fP \fIfunction\fP
+The shell function \fIfunction\fP is executed in the current shell
+environment.
+When it finishes, the possible completions are retrieved from the value
+of the
+.SM
+.B COMPREPLY
+array variable.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-X\fP \fIfilterpat\fP
+\fIfilterpat\fP is a pattern as used for filename expansion.
+It is applied to the list of possible completions generated by the
+preceding options and arguments, and each completion matching
+\fIfilterpat\fP is removed from the list.
+A leading \fB!\fP in \fIfilterpat\fP negates the pattern; in this
+case, any completion not matching \fIfilterpat\fP is removed.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-P\fP \fIprefix\fP
+\fIprefix\fP is added at the beginning of each possible completion
+after all other options have been applied.
+.TP 8
+\fB\-S\fP \fIsuffix\fP
+\fIsuffix\fP is appended to each possible completion
+after all other options have been applied.
+.PD
+.PP
+The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied, an option
+other than \fB\-p\fP or \fB\-r\fP is supplied without a \fIname\fP
+argument, an attempt is made to remove a completion specification for
+a \fIname\fP for which no specification exists, or
+an error occurs adding a completion specification.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBcontinue\fP [\fIn\fP]
+Resume the next iteration of the enclosing
+.BR for ,
+.BR while ,
+.BR until ,
+or
+.B select
+loop.
+If
+.I n
+is specified, resume at the \fIn\fPth enclosing loop.
+.I n
+must be \(>= 1.  If
+.I n
+is greater than the number of enclosing loops, the last enclosing loop
+(the ``top-level'' loop) is resumed.  The return value is 0 unless the
+shell is not executing a loop when
+.B continue
+is executed.
+.TP
+\fBdeclare\fP [\fB\-afFirtx\fP] [\fB\-p\fP] [\fIname\fP[=\fIvalue\fP] ...]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBtypeset\fP [\fB\-afFirtx\fP] [\fB\-p\fP] [\fIname\fP[=\fIvalue\fP] ...]
+.PD
+Declare variables and/or give them attributes.
+If no \fIname\fPs are given then display the values of variables.
+The
+.B \-p
+option will display the attributes and values of each
+.IR name .
+When
+.B \-p
+is used, additional options are ignored.
+The
+.B \-F
+option inhibits the display of function definitions; only the
+function name and attributes are printed.
+If the \fBextdebug\fP shell option is enabled using \fBshopt\fP,
+the source file name and line number where the function is defined
+are displayed as well.  The
+.B \-F
+option implies
+.BR \-f .
+The following options can
+be used to restrict output to variables with the specified attribute or
+to give variables attributes:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-a
+Each \fIname\fP is an array variable (see
+.B Arrays
+above).
+.TP
+.B \-f
+Use function names only.
+.TP
+.B \-i
+The variable is treated as an integer; arithmetic evaluation (see
+.SM
+.B "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION" ") "
+is performed when the variable is assigned a value.
+.TP
+.B \-r
+Make \fIname\fPs readonly.  These names cannot then be assigned values
+by subsequent assignment statements or unset.
+.TP
+.B \-t
+Give each \fIname\fP the \fItrace\fP attribute.
+Traced functions inherit the \fBDEBUG\fP and \fBRETURN\fP traps from
+the calling shell.
+The trace attribute has no special meaning for variables.
+.TP
+.B \-x
+Mark \fIname\fPs for export to subsequent commands via the environment.
+.PD
+.PP
+Using `+' instead of `\-'
+turns off the attribute instead, with the exception that \fB+a\fP
+may not be used to destroy an array variable.  When used in a function,
+makes each
+\fIname\fP local, as with the 
+.B local
+command.
+If a variable name is followed by =\fIvalue\fP, the value of
+the variable is set to \fIvalue\fP.
+The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered,
+an attempt is made to define a function using
+.if n ``\-f foo=bar'',
+.if t \f(CW\-f foo=bar\fP,
+an attempt is made to assign a value to a readonly variable,
+an attempt is made to assign a value to an array variable without
+using the compound assignment syntax (see
+.B Arrays
+above), one of the \fInames\fP is not a valid shell variable name,
+an attempt is made to turn off readonly status for a readonly variable,
+an attempt is made to turn off array status for an array variable,
+or an attempt is made to display a non-existent function with \fB\-f\fP.
+.RE
+.TP
+.B dirs [\fB\-clpv\fP] [+\fIn\fP] [\-\fIn\fP]
+Without options, displays the list of currently remembered directories.
+The default display is on a single line with directory names separated
+by spaces.
+Directories are added to the list with the 
+.B pushd
+command; the
+.B popd
+command removes entries from the list.
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB+\fP\fIn\fP
+Displays the \fIn\fPth entry counting from the left of the list
+shown by
+.B dirs
+when invoked without options, starting with zero.
+.TP
+\fB\-\fP\fIn\fP
+Displays the \fIn\fPth entry counting from the right of the list
+shown by
+.B dirs
+when invoked without options, starting with zero.
+.TP
+.B \-c
+Clears the directory stack by deleting all of the entries.
+.TP
+.B \-l
+Produces a longer listing; the default listing format uses a 
+tilde to denote the home directory.
+.TP
+.B \-p
+Print the directory stack with one entry per line.
+.TP
+.B \-v
+Print the directory stack with one entry per line,
+prefixing each entry with its index in the stack.
+.PD
+.PP
+The return value is 0 unless an
+invalid option is supplied or \fIn\fP indexes beyond the end
+of the directory stack.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBdisown\fP [\fB\-ar\fP] [\fB\-h\fP] [\fIjobspec\fP ...]
+Without options, each
+.I jobspec
+is removed from the table of active jobs.
+If the \fB\-h\fP option is given, each
+.I jobspec
+is not removed from the table, but is marked so that
+.SM
+.B SIGHUP
+is not sent to the job if the shell receives a
+.SM
+.BR SIGHUP .
+If no
+.I jobspec
+is present, and neither the
+.B \-a
+nor the
+.B \-r
+option is supplied, the \fIcurrent job\fP is used.
+If no
+.I jobspec
+is supplied, the
+.B \-a
+option means to remove or mark all jobs; the
+.B \-r
+option without a
+.I jobspec
+argument restricts operation to running jobs.
+The return value is 0 unless a
+.I jobspec
+does not specify a valid job.
+.TP
+\fBecho\fP [\fB\-neE\fP] [\fIarg\fP ...]
+Output the \fIarg\fPs, separated by spaces, followed by a newline.
+The return status is always 0.
+If \fB\-n\fP is specified, the trailing newline is
+suppressed.  If the \fB\-e\fP option is given, interpretation of
+the following backslash-escaped characters is enabled.  The
+.B \-E
+option disables the interpretation of these escape characters,
+even on systems where they are interpreted by default.
+The \fBxpg_echo\fP shell option may be used to
+dynamically determine whether or not \fBecho\fP expands these
+escape characters by default.
+.B echo
+does not interpret \fB\-\-\fP to mean the end of options.
+.B echo
+interprets the following escape sequences:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \ea
+alert (bell)
+.TP
+.B \eb
+backspace
+.TP
+.B \ec
+suppress trailing newline
+.TP
+.B \ee
+an escape character
+.TP
+.B \ef
+form feed
+.TP
+.B \en
+new line
+.TP
+.B \er
+carriage return
+.TP
+.B \et
+horizontal tab
+.TP
+.B \ev
+vertical tab
+.TP
+.B \e\e
+backslash
+.TP
+.B \e0\fInnn\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value \fInnn\fP
+(zero to three octal digits)
+.TP
+.B \e\fInnn\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value \fInnn\fP
+(one to three octal digits)
+.TP
+.B \ex\fIHH\fP
+the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value \fIHH\fP
+(one or two hex digits)
+.PD
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBenable\fP [\fB\-adnps\fP] [\fB\-f\fP \fIfilename\fP] [\fIname\fP ...]
+Enable and disable builtin shell commands.
+Disabling a builtin allows a disk command which has the same name
+as a shell builtin to be executed without specifying a full pathname,
+even though the shell normally searches for builtins before disk commands.
+If \fB\-n\fP is used, each \fIname\fP
+is disabled; otherwise,
+\fInames\fP are enabled.  For example, to use the
+.B test
+binary found via the
+.SM
+.B PATH
+instead of the shell builtin version, run
+.if t \f(CWenable -n test\fP.
+.if n ``enable -n test''.
+The
+.B \-f
+option means to load the new builtin command
+.I name
+from shared object
+.IR filename ,
+on systems that support dynamic loading.  The
+.B \-d
+option will delete a builtin previously loaded with
+.BR \-f .
+If no \fIname\fP arguments are given, or if the
+.B \-p
+option is supplied, a list of shell builtins is printed.
+With no other option arguments, the list consists of all enabled
+shell builtins.
+If \fB\-n\fP is supplied, only disabled builtins are printed.
+If \fB\-a\fP is supplied, the list printed includes all builtins, with an
+indication of whether or not each is enabled.
+If \fB\-s\fP is supplied, the output is restricted to the POSIX
+\fIspecial\fP builtins.
+The return value is 0 unless a
+.I name
+is not a shell builtin or there is an error loading a new builtin
+from a shared object.
+.TP
+\fBeval\fP [\fIarg\fP ...]
+The \fIarg\fPs are read and concatenated together into a single
+command.  This command is then read and executed by the shell, and
+its exit status is returned as the value of
+.BR eval .
+If there are no
+.IR args ,
+or only null arguments,
+.B eval
+returns 0.
+.TP
+\fBexec\fP [\fB\-cl\fP] [\fB\-a\fP \fIname\fP] [\fIcommand\fP [\fIarguments\fP]]
+If
+.I command
+is specified, it replaces the shell.
+No new process is created.  The
+.I arguments
+become the arguments to \fIcommand\fP.
+If the
+.B \-l
+option is supplied,
+the shell places a dash at the beginning of the zeroth arg passed to 
+.IR command .
+This is what
+.IR login (1)
+does.  The
+.B \-c
+option causes
+.I command
+to be executed with an empty environment.  If
+.B \-a
+is supplied, the shell passes
+.I name
+as the zeroth argument to the executed command.  If
+.I command
+cannot be executed for some reason, a non-interactive shell exits,
+unless the shell option
+.B execfail
+is enabled, in which case it returns failure.
+An interactive shell returns failure if the file cannot be executed.
+If
+.I command
+is not specified, any redirections take effect in the current shell,
+and the return status is 0.  If there is a redirection error, the
+return status is 1.
+.TP
+\fBexit\fP [\fIn\fP]
+Cause the shell to exit
+with a status of \fIn\fP.  If
+.I n
+is omitted, the exit status
+is that of the last command executed.
+A trap on
+.SM
+.B EXIT
+is executed before the shell terminates.
+.TP
+\fBexport\fP [\fB\-fn\fP\^] [\fIname\fP[=\fIword\fP]] ...
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B export \-p
+.PD
+The supplied
+.I names
+are marked for automatic export to the environment of
+subsequently executed commands.  If the 
+.B \-f
+option is given,
+the 
+.I names
+refer to functions.
+If no
+.I names
+are given, or if the
+.B \-p
+option is supplied, a list
+of all names that are exported in this shell is printed.
+The
+.B \-n
+option causes the export property to be removed from each
+\fIname\fP.
+If a variable name is followed by =\fIword\fP, the value of
+the variable is set to \fIword\fP.
+.B export
+returns an exit status of 0 unless an invalid option is
+encountered,
+one of the \fInames\fP is not a valid shell variable name, or
+.B \-f
+is supplied with a
+.I name
+that is not a function.
+.TP
+\fBfc\fP [\fB\-e\fP \fIename\fP] [\fB\-nlr\fP] [\fIfirst\fP] [\fIlast\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBfc\fP \fB\-s\fP [\fIpat\fP=\fIrep\fP] [\fIcmd\fP]
+.PD
+Fix Command.  In the first form, a range of commands from
+.I first
+to
+.I last
+is selected from the history list.
+.I First
+and
+.I last
+may be specified as a string (to locate the last command beginning
+with that string) or as a number (an index into the history list,
+where a negative number is used as an offset from the current
+command number).  If 
+.I last
+is not specified it is set to
+the current command for listing (so that
+.if n ``fc \-l \-10''
+.if t \f(CWfc \-l \-10\fP
+prints the last 10 commands) and to
+.I first
+otherwise.
+If
+.I first
+is not specified it is set to the previous
+command for editing and \-16 for listing.
+.sp 1
+The
+.B \-n
+option suppresses
+the command numbers when listing.  The
+.B \-r
+option reverses the order of
+the commands.  If the
+.B \-l
+option is given,
+the commands are listed on
+standard output.  Otherwise, the editor given by
+.I ename
+is invoked
+on a file containing those commands.  If
+.I ename
+is not given, the
+value of the
+.SM
+.B FCEDIT
+variable is used, and
+the value of
+.SM
+.B EDITOR
+if
+.SM
+.B FCEDIT
+is not set.  If neither variable is set,
+.FN vi
+is used.  When editing is complete, the edited commands are
+echoed and executed.
+.sp 1
+In the second form, \fIcommand\fP is re-executed after each instance
+of \fIpat\fP is replaced by \fIrep\fP.
+A useful alias to use with this is
+.if n ``r="fc -s"'',
+.if t \f(CWr='fc \-s'\fP,
+so that typing
+.if n ``r cc''
+.if t \f(CWr cc\fP
+runs the last command beginning with
+.if n ``cc''
+.if t \f(CWcc\fP
+and typing
+.if n ``r''
+.if t \f(CWr\fP
+re-executes the last command.
+.sp 1
+If the first form is used, the return value is 0 unless an invalid
+option is encountered or
+.I first
+or
+.I last
+specify history lines out of range.
+If the
+.B \-e
+option is supplied, the return value is the value of the last
+command executed or failure if an error occurs with the temporary
+file of commands.  If the second form is used, the return status
+is that of the command re-executed, unless
+.I cmd
+does not specify a valid history line, in which case
+.B fc
+returns failure.
+.TP
+\fBfg\fP [\fIjobspec\fP]
+Resume
+.I jobspec
+in the foreground, and make it the current job.
+If
+.I jobspec
+is not present, the shell's notion of the \fIcurrent job\fP is used.
+The return value is that of the command placed into the foreground,
+or failure if run when job control is disabled or, when run with
+job control enabled, if
+.I jobspec
+does not specify a valid job or
+.I jobspec
+specifies a job that was started without job control.
+.TP
+\fBgetopts\fP \fIoptstring\fP \fIname\fP [\fIargs\fP]
+.B getopts
+is used by shell procedures to parse positional parameters.
+.I optstring
+contains the option characters to be recognized; if a character
+is followed by a colon, the option is expected to have an
+argument, which should be separated from it by white space.
+The colon and question mark characters may not be used as
+option characters.
+Each time it is invoked,
+.B getopts
+places the next option in the shell variable
+.IR name ,
+initializing
+.I name
+if it does not exist,
+and the index of the next argument to be processed into the
+variable
+.SM
+.BR OPTIND .
+.SM
+.B OPTIND
+is initialized to 1 each time the shell or a shell script
+is invoked.  When an option requires an argument,
+.B getopts
+places that argument into the variable
+.SM
+.BR OPTARG .
+The shell does not reset
+.SM
+.B OPTIND
+automatically; it must be manually reset between multiple
+calls to
+.B getopts
+within the same shell invocation if a new set of parameters
+is to be used.
+.sp 1
+When the end of options is encountered, \fBgetopts\fP exits with a
+return value greater than zero.
+\fBOPTIND\fP is set to the index of the first non-option argument,
+and \fBname\fP is set to ?.
+.sp 1
+.B getopts
+normally parses the positional parameters, but if more arguments are
+given in
+.IR args ,
+.B getopts
+parses those instead.
+.sp 1
+.B getopts
+can report errors in two ways.  If the first character of
+.I optstring
+is a colon,
+.I silent
+error reporting is used.  In normal operation diagnostic messages
+are printed when invalid options or missing option arguments are
+encountered.
+If the variable
+.SM
+.B OPTERR
+is set to 0, no error messages will be displayed, even if the first
+character of 
+.I optstring
+is not a colon.
+.sp 1
+If an invalid option is seen,
+.B getopts
+places ? into
+.I name
+and, if not silent,
+prints an error message and unsets
+.SM
+.BR OPTARG .
+If
+.B getopts
+is silent,
+the option character found is placed in
+.SM
+.B OPTARG
+and no diagnostic message is printed.
+.sp 1
+If a required argument is not found, and
+.B getopts
+is not silent,
+a question mark (\^\fB?\fP\^) is placed in
+.IR name ,
+.SM
+.B OPTARG
+is unset, and a diagnostic message is printed.
+If
+.B getopts
+is silent, then a colon (\^\fB:\fP\^) is placed in
+.I name
+and
+.SM
+.B OPTARG
+is set to the option character found.
+.sp 1
+.B getopts
+returns true if an option, specified or unspecified, is found.
+It returns false if the end of options is encountered or an
+error occurs.
+.TP
+\fBhash\fP [\fB\-lr\fP] [\fB\-p\fP \fIfilename\fP] [\fB\-dt\fP] [\fIname\fP]
+For each
+.IR name ,
+the full file name of the command is determined by searching
+the directories in
+.B $PATH
+and remembered.
+If the
+.B \-p
+option is supplied, no path search is performed, and
+.I filename
+is used as the full file name of the command.
+The
+.B \-r
+option causes the shell to forget all
+remembered locations.
+The
+.B \-d
+option causes the shell to forget the remembered location of each \fIname\fP.
+If the
+.B \-t
+option is supplied, the full pathname to which each \fIname\fP corresponds
+is printed.  If multiple \fIname\fP arguments are supplied with \fB\-t\fP,
+the \fIname\fP is printed before the hashed full pathname.
+The
+.B \-l
+option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input.
+If no arguments are given, or if only \fB\-l\fP is supplied,
+information about remembered commands is printed.
+The return status is true unless a
+.I name
+is not found or an invalid option is supplied.
+.TP
+\fBhelp\fP [\fB\-s\fP] [\fIpattern\fP]
+Display helpful information about builtin commands.  If
+.I pattern
+is specified,
+.B help
+gives detailed help on all commands matching
+.IR pattern ;
+otherwise help for all the builtins and shell control structures
+is printed.
+The \fB\-s\fP option restricts the information displayed to a short
+usage synopsis.
+The return status is 0 unless no command matches
+.IR pattern .
+.TP
+\fBhistory [\fIn\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBhistory\fP \fB\-c\fP
+.TP
+\fBhistory \-d\fP \fIoffset\fP
+.TP
+\fBhistory\fP \fB\-anrw\fP [\fIfilename\fP]
+.TP
+\fBhistory\fP \fB\-p\fP \fIarg\fP [\fIarg ...\fP]
+.TP
+\fBhistory\fP \fB\-s\fP \fIarg\fP [\fIarg ...\fP]
+.PD
+With no options, display the command
+history list with line numbers.  Lines listed
+with a 
+.B *
+have been modified.  An argument of
+.I n
+lists only the last
+.I n
+lines.
+If the shell variable \fBHISTTIMEFORMAT\fP is set and not null,
+it is used as a format string for \fIstrftime\fP(3) to display
+the time stamp associated with each displayed history entry.
+No intervening blank is printed between the formatted time stamp
+and the history line.
+If \fIfilename\fP is supplied, it is used as the
+name of the history file; if not, the value of
+.SM
+.B HISTFILE
+is used.  Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-c
+Clear the history list by deleting all the entries.
+.TP
+\fB\-d\fP \fIoffset\fP
+Delete the history entry at position \fIoffset\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-a
+Append the ``new'' history lines (history lines entered since the
+beginning of the current \fBbash\fP session) to the history file.
+.TP
+.B \-n
+Read the history lines not already read from the history
+file into the current history list.  These are lines
+appended to the history file since the beginning of the
+current \fBbash\fP session.
+.TP
+.B \-r
+Read the contents of the history file
+and use them as the current history.
+.TP
+.B \-w
+Write the current history to the history file, overwriting the
+history file's contents.
+.TP
+.B \-p
+Perform history substitution on the following \fIargs\fP and display
+the result on the standard output.
+Does not store the results in the history list.
+Each \fIarg\fP must be quoted to disable normal history expansion.
+.TP
+.B \-s
+Store the
+.I args
+in the history list as a single entry.  The last command in the
+history list is removed before the
+.I args
+are added.
+.PD
+.PP
+If the \fBHISTTIMEFORMAT\fP is set, the time stamp information
+associated with each history entry is written to the history file.
+The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered, an
+error occurs while reading or writing the history file, an invalid
+\fIoffset\fP is supplied as an argument to \fB\-d\fP, or the
+history expansion supplied as an argument to \fB\-p\fP fails.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBjobs\fP [\fB\-lnprs\fP] [ \fIjobspec\fP ... ]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBjobs\fP \fB\-x\fP \fIcommand\fP [ \fIargs\fP ... ]
+.PD
+The first form lists the active jobs.  The options have the following
+meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-l
+List process IDs
+in addition to the normal information.
+.TP
+.B \-p
+List only the process ID of the job's process group
+leader.
+.TP
+.B \-n
+Display information only about jobs that have changed status since
+the user was last notified of their status.
+.TP
+.B \-r
+Restrict output to running jobs.
+.TP
+.B \-s
+Restrict output to stopped jobs.
+.PD
+.PP
+If
+.I jobspec
+is given, output is restricted to information about that job.
+The return status is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered
+or an invalid
+.I jobspec
+is supplied.
+.PP
+If the
+.B \-x
+option is supplied,
+.B jobs
+replaces any
+.I jobspec
+found in
+.I command
+or
+.I args
+with the corresponding process group ID, and executes
+.I command
+passing it
+.IR args ,
+returning its exit status.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBkill\fP [\fB\-s\fP \fIsigspec\fP | \fB\-n\fP \fIsignum\fP | \fB\-\fP\fIsigspec\fP] [\fIpid\fP | \fIjobspec\fP] ...
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBkill\fP \fB\-l\fP [\fIsigspec\fP | \fIexit_status\fP]
+.PD
+Send the signal named by
+.I sigspec
+or
+.I signum
+to the processes named by
+.I pid
+or
+.IR jobspec .
+.I sigspec
+is either a case-insensitive signal name such as
+.SM
+.B SIGKILL
+(with or without the
+.SM
+.B SIG
+prefix) or a signal number;
+.I signum
+is a signal number.
+If
+.I sigspec
+is not present, then
+.SM
+.B SIGTERM
+is assumed.
+An argument of
+.B \-l
+lists the signal names.
+If any arguments are supplied when
+.B \-l
+is given, the names of the signals corresponding to the arguments are
+listed, and the return status is 0.
+The \fIexit_status\fP argument to
+.B \-l
+is a number specifying either a signal number or the exit status of
+a process terminated by a signal.
+.B kill
+returns true if at least one signal was successfully sent, or false
+if an error occurs or an invalid option is encountered.
+.TP
+\fBlet\fP \fIarg\fP [\fIarg\fP ...]
+Each
+.I arg
+is an arithmetic expression to be evaluated (see
+.SM
+.BR "ARITHMETIC EVALUATION" ).
+If the last
+.I arg
+evaluates to 0,
+.B let
+returns 1; 0 is returned otherwise.
+.TP
+\fBlocal\fP [\fIoption\fP] [\fIname\fP[=\fIvalue\fP] ...]
+For each argument, a local variable named
+.I name 
+is created, and assigned
+.IR value .
+The \fIoption\fP can be any of the options accepted by \fBdeclare\fP.
+When
+.B local
+is used within a function, it causes the variable
+.I name
+to have a visible scope restricted to that function and its children.
+With no operands,
+.B local
+writes a list of local variables to the standard output.  It is
+an error to use
+.B local
+when not within a function.  The return status is 0 unless
+.B local
+is used outside a function, an invalid
+.I name
+is supplied, or
+\fIname\fP is a readonly variable.
+.TP
+.B logout
+Exit a login shell.
+.TP
+\fBpopd\fP [\-\fBn\fP] [+\fIn\fP] [\-\fIn\fP]
+Removes entries from the directory stack.  With no arguments,
+removes the top directory from the stack, and performs a
+.B cd
+to the new top directory.
+Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB+\fP\fIn\fP
+Removes the \fIn\fPth entry counting from the left of the list
+shown by
+.BR dirs ,
+starting with zero.  For example:
+.if n ``popd +0''
+.if t \f(CWpopd +0\fP
+removes the first directory,
+.if n ``popd +1''
+.if t \f(CWpopd +1\fP
+the second.
+.TP
+\fB\-\fP\fIn\fP
+Removes the \fIn\fPth entry counting from the right of the list
+shown by
+.BR dirs ,
+starting with zero.  For example:
+.if n ``popd -0''
+.if t \f(CWpopd -0\fP
+removes the last directory,
+.if n ``popd -1''
+.if t \f(CWpopd -1\fP
+the next to last.
+.TP
+.B \-n
+Suppresses the normal change of directory when removing directories
+from the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated.
+.PD
+.PP
+If the
+.B popd
+command is successful, a 
+.B dirs
+is performed as well, and the return status is 0.
+.B popd
+returns false if an invalid option is encountered, the directory stack
+is empty, a non-existent directory stack entry is specified, or the
+directory change fails.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBprintf\fP [\fB\-v\fP \fIvar\fP] \fIformat\fP [\fIarguments\fP]
+Write the formatted \fIarguments\fP to the standard output under the
+control of the \fIformat\fP.
+The \fIformat\fP is a character string which contains three types of objects:
+plain characters, which are simply copied to standard output, character
+escape sequences, which are converted and copied to the standard output, and
+format specifications, each of which causes printing of the next successive
+\fIargument\fP.
+In addition to the standard \fIprintf\fP(1) formats, \fB%b\fP causes
+\fBprintf\fP to expand backslash escape sequences in the corresponding
+\fIargument\fP (except that \fB\ec\fP terminates output, backslashes in
+\fB\e'\fP, \fB\e"\fP, and \fB\e?\fP are not removed, and octal escapes
+beginning with \fB\e0\fP may contain up to four digits),
+and \fB%q\fP causes \fBprintf\fP to output the corresponding
+\fIargument\fP in a format that can be reused as shell input.
+.sp 1
+The \fB\-v\fP option causes the output to be assigned to the variable
+\fIvar\fP rather than being printed to the standard output.
+.sp 1
+The \fIformat\fP is reused as necessary to consume all of the \fIarguments\fP.
+If the \fIformat\fP requires more \fIarguments\fP than are supplied, the
+extra format specifications behave as if a zero value or null string, as
+appropriate, had been supplied.  The return value is zero on success,
+non-zero on failure.
+.TP
+\fBpushd\fP [\fB\-n\fP] [\fIdir\fP]
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fBpushd\fP [\fB\-n\fP] [+\fIn\fP] [\-\fIn\fP]
+.PD
+Adds a directory to the top of the directory stack, or rotates
+the stack, making the new top of the stack the current working
+directory.  With no arguments, exchanges the top two directories
+and returns 0, unless the directory stack is empty.
+Arguments, if supplied, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB+\fP\fIn\fP
+Rotates the stack so that the \fIn\fPth directory
+(counting from the left of the list shown by
+.BR dirs ,
+starting with zero)
+is at the top.
+.TP
+\fB\-\fP\fIn\fP
+Rotates the stack so that the \fIn\fPth directory
+(counting from the right of the list shown by
+.BR dirs ,
+starting with zero) is at the top.
+.TP
+.B \-n
+Suppresses the normal change of directory when adding directories
+to the stack, so that only the stack is manipulated.
+.TP
+.I dir
+Adds
+.I dir
+to the directory stack at the top, making it the
+new current working directory.
+.PD
+.PP
+If the
+.B pushd
+command is successful, a 
+.B dirs
+is performed as well.
+If the first form is used,
+.B pushd
+returns 0 unless the cd to
+.I dir
+fails.  With the second form,
+.B pushd
+returns 0 unless the directory stack is empty,
+a non-existent directory stack element is specified,
+or the directory change to the specified new current directory
+fails.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBpwd\fP [\fB\-LP\fP]
+Print the absolute pathname of the current working directory.
+The pathname printed contains no symbolic links if the
+.B \-P
+option is supplied or the 
+.B \-o physical
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin command is enabled.
+If the
+.B \-L
+option is used, the pathname printed may contain symbolic links.
+The return status is 0 unless an error occurs while
+reading the name of the current directory or an
+invalid option is supplied.
+.TP
+\fBread\fP [\fB\-ers\fP] [\fB\-u\fP \fIfd\fP] [\fB\-t\fP \fItimeout\fP] [\fB\-a\fP \fIaname\fP] [\fB\-p\fP \fIprompt\fP] [\fB\-n\fP \fInchars\fP] [\fB\-d\fP \fIdelim\fP] [\fIname\fP ...]
+One line is read from the standard input, or from the file descriptor
+\fIfd\fP supplied as an argument to the \fB\-u\fP option, and the first word
+is assigned to the first
+.IR name ,
+the second word to the second
+.IR name ,
+and so on, with leftover words and their intervening separators assigned
+to the last
+.IR name .
+If there are fewer words read from the input stream than names,
+the remaining names are assigned empty values.
+The characters in 
+.SM
+.B IFS
+are used to split the line into words.
+The backslash character (\fB\e\fP) may be used to remove any special
+meaning for the next character read and for line continuation.
+Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-a \fIaname\fP
+The words are assigned to sequential indices
+of the array variable
+.IR aname ,
+starting at 0.
+.I aname
+is unset before any new values are assigned.
+Other \fIname\fP arguments are ignored.
+.TP
+.B \-d \fIdelim\fP
+The first character of \fIdelim\fP is used to terminate the input line,
+rather than newline.
+.TP
+.B \-e
+If the standard input
+is coming from a terminal,
+.B readline
+(see
+.SM
+.B READLINE
+above) is used to obtain the line.
+.TP
+.B \-n \fInchars\fP
+\fBread\fP returns after reading \fInchars\fP characters rather than
+waiting for a complete line of input.
+.TP
+.B \-p \fIprompt\fP
+Display \fIprompt\fP on standard error, without a
+trailing newline, before attempting to read any input.  The prompt
+is displayed only if input is coming from a terminal.
+.TP
+.B \-r
+Backslash does not act as an escape character.
+The backslash is considered to be part of the line.
+In particular, a backslash-newline pair may not be used as a line
+continuation.
+.TP
+.B \-s
+Silent mode.  If input is coming from a terminal, characters are
+not echoed.
+.TP
+.B \-t \fItimeout\fP
+Cause \fBread\fP to time out and return failure if a complete line of
+input is not read within \fItimeout\fP seconds.
+This option has no effect if \fBread\fP is not reading input from the
+terminal or a pipe.
+.TP
+.B \-u \fIfd\fP
+Read input from file descriptor \fIfd\fP.
+.PD
+.PP
+If no
+.I names
+are supplied, the line read is assigned to the variable
+.SM
+.BR REPLY .
+The return code is zero, unless end-of-file is encountered, \fBread\fP
+times out, or an invalid file descriptor is supplied as the argument to
+\fB\-u\fP.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBreadonly\fP [\fB\-apf\fP] [\fIname\fP[=\fIword\fP] ...]
+.PD
+The given
+\fInames\fP are marked readonly; the values of these
+.I names
+may not be changed by subsequent assignment.
+If the
+.B \-f
+option is supplied, the functions corresponding to the
+\fInames\fP are so
+marked.
+The
+.B \-a
+option restricts the variables to arrays.
+If no
+.I name
+arguments are given, or if the
+.B \-p
+option is supplied, a list of all readonly names is printed.
+The
+.B \-p
+option causes output to be displayed in a format that
+may be reused as input.
+If a variable name is followed by =\fIword\fP, the value of
+the variable is set to \fIword\fP.
+The return status is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered,
+one of the
+.I names
+is not a valid shell variable name, or
+.B \-f
+is supplied with a
+.I name
+that is not a function.
+.TP
+\fBreturn\fP [\fIn\fP]
+Causes a function to exit with the return value specified by
+.IR n .
+If 
+.I n
+is omitted, the return status is that of the last command
+executed in the function body.  If used outside a function,
+but during execution of a script by the 
+.B .
+(\fBsource\fP) command, it causes the shell to stop executing
+that script and return either
+.I n
+or the exit status of the last command executed within the
+script as the exit status of the script.  If used outside a
+function and not during execution of a script by \fB.\fP\^,
+the return status is false.
+Any command associated with the \fBRETURN\fP trap is executed
+before execution resumes after the function or script.
+.TP
+\fBset\fP [\fB\-\-abefhkmnptuvxBCHP\fP] [\fB\-o\fP \fIoption\fP] [\fIarg\fP ...]
+Without options, the name and value of each shell variable are displayed
+in a format that can be reused as input
+for setting or resetting the currently-set variables.
+Read-only variables cannot be reset.
+In \fIposix mode\fP, only shell variables are listed.
+The output is sorted according to the current locale.
+When options are specified, they set or unset shell attributes.
+Any arguments remaining after the options are processed are treated
+as values for the positional parameters and are assigned, in order, to 
+.BR $1 ,
+.BR $2 ,
+.B ...
+.BR $\fIn\fP .
+Options, if specified, have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP 8
+.B \-a
+Automatically mark variables and functions which are modified or
+created for export to the environment of subsequent commands.
+.TP 8
+.B \-b
+Report the status of terminated background jobs
+immediately, rather than before the next primary prompt.  This is
+effective only when job control is enabled.
+.TP 8
+.B \-e
+Exit immediately if a \fIsimple command\fP (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL GRAMMAR
+above) exits with a non-zero status.
+The shell does not exit if the
+command that fails is part of the command list immediately following a
+.B while
+or
+.B until
+keyword, 
+part of the test in an
+.I if
+statement, part of a
+.B &&
+or
+.B \(bv\(bv
+list, or if the command's return value is
+being inverted via
+.BR ! .
+A trap on \fBERR\fP, if set, is executed before the shell exits.
+.TP 8
+.B \-f
+Disable pathname expansion.
+.TP 8 
+.B \-h
+Remember the location of commands as they are looked up for execution.
+This is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B \-k
+All arguments in the form of assignment statements
+are placed in the environment for a command, not just
+those that precede the command name.
+.TP 8
+.B \-m
+Monitor mode.  Job control is enabled.  This option is on
+by default for interactive shells on systems that support
+it (see
+.SM
+.B JOB CONTROL
+above).  Background processes run in a separate process
+group and a line containing their exit status is printed
+upon their completion.
+.TP 8
+.B \-n
+Read commands but do not execute them.  This may be used to 
+check a shell script for syntax errors.  This is ignored by
+interactive shells.
+.TP 8
+.B \-o \fIoption\-name\fP
+The \fIoption\-name\fP can be one of the following:
+.RS
+.TP 8
+.B allexport
+Same as
+.BR \-a .
+.TP 8
+.B braceexpand
+Same as
+.BR \-B .
+.TP 8
+.B emacs
+Use an emacs-style command line editing interface.  This is enabled
+by default when the shell is interactive, unless the shell is started
+with the
+.B \-\-noediting
+option.
+.TP 8
+.B errtrace
+Same as
+.BR \-E .
+.TP 8
+.B functrace
+Same as
+.BR \-T .
+.TP 8
+.B errexit
+Same as
+.BR \-e .
+.TP 8
+.B hashall
+Same as
+.BR \-h .
+.TP 8
+.B histexpand
+Same as
+.BR \-H .
+.TP 8
+.B history
+Enable command history, as described above under
+.SM
+.BR HISTORY .
+This option is on by default in interactive shells.
+.TP 8
+.B ignoreeof
+The effect is as if the shell command
+.if t \f(CWIGNOREEOF=10\fP
+.if n ``IGNOREEOF=10''
+had been executed
+(see
+.B Shell Variables
+above).
+.TP 8
+.B keyword
+Same as
+.BR \-k .
+.TP 8
+.B monitor
+Same as
+.BR \-m .
+.TP 8
+.B noclobber
+Same as
+.BR \-C .
+.TP 8
+.B noexec
+Same as
+.BR \-n .
+.TP 8
+.B noglob
+Same as
+.BR \-f .
+.B nolog
+Currently ignored.
+.TP 8
+.B notify
+Same as
+.BR \-b .
+.TP 8
+.B nounset
+Same as
+.BR \-u .
+.TP 8
+.B onecmd
+Same as
+.BR \-t .
+.TP 8
+.B physical
+Same as
+.BR \-P .
+.TP 8
+.B pipefail
+If set, the return value of a pipeline is the value of the last
+(rightmost) command to exit with a non-zero status, or zero if all
+commands in the pipeline exit successfully.
+This option is disabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B posix
+Change the behavior of
+.B bash
+where the default operation differs
+from the POSIX 1003.2 standard to match the standard (\fIposix mode\fP).
+.TP 8
+.B privileged
+Same as
+.BR \-p .
+.TP 8
+.B verbose
+Same as
+.BR \-v .
+.TP 8
+.B vi
+Use a vi-style command line editing interface.
+.TP 8
+.B xtrace
+Same as
+.BR \-x .
+.sp .5
+.PP
+If
+.B \-o
+is supplied with no \fIoption\-name\fP, the values of the current options are
+printed.
+If
+.B +o
+is supplied with no \fIoption\-name\fP, a series of
+.B set
+commands to recreate the current option settings is displayed on
+the standard output.
+.RE
+.TP 8
+.B \-p
+Turn on
+.I privileged
+mode.  In this mode, the
+.SM
+.B $ENV
+and
+.SM
+.B $BASH_ENV
+files are not processed, shell functions are not inherited from the
+environment, and the
+.SM
+.B SHELLOPTS
+variable, if it appears in the environment, is ignored.
+If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the
+real user (group) id, and the \fB\-p\fP option is not supplied, these actions
+are taken and the effective user id is set to the real user id.
+If the \fB\-p\fP option is supplied at startup, the effective user id is
+not reset.
+Turning this option off causes the effective user
+and group ids to be set to the real user and group ids.
+.TP 8
+.B \-t
+Exit after reading and executing one command.
+.TP 8
+.B \-u
+Treat unset variables as an error when performing
+parameter expansion.  If expansion is attempted on an
+unset variable, the shell prints an error message, and,
+if not interactive, exits with a non-zero status.
+.TP 8
+.B \-v
+Print shell input lines as they are read.
+.TP 8
+.B \-x
+After expanding each \fIsimple command\fP,
+\fBfor\fP command, \fBcase\fP command, \fBselect\fP command, or
+arithmetic \fBfor\fP command, display the expanded value of
+.SM
+.BR PS4 ,
+followed by the command and its expanded arguments
+or associated word list.
+.TP 8
+.B \-B
+The shell performs brace expansion (see
+.B Brace Expansion
+above).  This is on by default.
+.TP 8
+.B \-C
+If set,
+.B bash
+does not overwrite an existing file with the
+.BR > ,
+.BR >& ,
+and
+.B <>
+redirection operators.  This may be overridden when 
+creating output files by using the redirection operator
+.B >|
+instead of
+.BR > .
+.TP 8
+.B \-E
+If set, any trap on \fBERR\fP is inherited by shell functions, command
+substitutions, and commands executed in a subshell environment.
+The \fBERR\fP trap is normally not inherited in such cases.
+.TP 8
+.B \-H
+Enable
+.B !
+style history substitution.  This option is on by
+default when the shell is interactive.
+.TP 8
+.B \-P
+If set, the shell does not follow symbolic links when executing
+commands such as
+.B cd
+that change the current working directory.  It uses the
+physical directory structure instead.  By default,
+.B bash
+follows the logical chain of directories when performing commands
+which change the current directory.
+.TP 8
+.B \-T
+If set, any traps on \fBDEBUG\fP and \fBRETURN\fP are inherited by shell
+functions, command substitutions, and commands executed in a
+subshell environment.
+The \fBDEBUG\fP and \fBRETURN\fP traps are normally not inherited
+in such cases.
+.TP 8
+.B \-\-
+If no arguments follow this option, then the positional parameters are
+unset.  Otherwise, the positional parameters are set to the
+\fIarg\fPs, even if some of them begin with a
+.BR \- .
+.TP 8
+.B \-
+Signal the end of options, cause all remaining \fIarg\fPs to be
+assigned to the positional parameters.  The
+.B \-x
+and
+.B \-v
+options are turned off.
+If there are no \fIarg\fPs,
+the positional parameters remain unchanged.
+.PD
+.PP
+The options are off by default unless otherwise noted.
+Using + rather than \- causes these options to be turned off.
+The options can also be specified as arguments to an invocation of
+the shell.
+The current set of options may be found in
+.BR $\- .
+The return status is always true unless an invalid option is encountered.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBshift\fP [\fIn\fP]
+The positional parameters from \fIn\fP+1 ... are renamed to
+.B $1
+.B ....
+Parameters represented by the numbers \fB$#\fP
+down to \fB$#\fP\-\fIn\fP+1 are unset.
+.I n
+must be a non-negative number less than or equal to \fB$#\fP.
+If
+.I n
+is 0, no parameters are changed.
+If
+.I n 
+is not given, it is assumed to be 1.
+If
+.I n
+is greater than \fB$#\fP, the positional parameters are not changed.
+The return status is greater than zero if
+.I n
+is greater than
+.B $#
+or less than zero; otherwise 0.
+.TP
+\fBshopt\fP [\fB\-pqsu\fP] [\fB\-o\fP] [\fIoptname\fP ...]
+Toggle the values of variables controlling optional shell behavior.
+With no options, or with the
+.B \-p
+option, a list of all settable options is displayed, with
+an indication of whether or not each is set.
+The \fB\-p\fP option causes output to be displayed in a form that
+may be reused as input.
+Other options have the following meanings:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-s
+Enable (set) each \fIoptname\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-u
+Disable (unset) each \fIoptname\fP.
+.TP
+.B \-q
+Suppresses normal output (quiet mode); the return status indicates
+whether the \fIoptname\fP is set or unset.
+If multiple \fIoptname\fP arguments are given with
+.BR \-q ,
+the return status is zero if all \fIoptnames\fP are enabled; non-zero
+otherwise.
+.TP
+.B \-o
+Restricts the values of \fIoptname\fP to be those defined for the
+.B \-o
+option to the
+.B set
+builtin.
+.PD
+.PP
+If either
+.B \-s
+or
+.B \-u
+is used with no \fIoptname\fP arguments, the display is limited to
+those options which are set or unset, respectively.
+Unless otherwise noted, the \fBshopt\fP options are disabled (unset)
+by default.
+.PP
+The return status when listing options is zero if all \fIoptnames\fP
+are enabled, non-zero otherwise.  When setting or unsetting options,
+the return status is zero unless an \fIoptname\fP is not a valid shell
+option.
+.PP
+The list of \fBshopt\fP options is:
+.if t .sp .5v
+.if n .sp 1v
+.PD 0
+.TP 8
+.B cdable_vars
+If set, an argument to the
+.B cd
+builtin command that
+is not a directory is assumed to be the name of a variable whose
+value is the directory to change to.
+.TP 8
+.B cdspell
+If set, minor errors in the spelling of a directory component in a
+.B cd
+command will be corrected.
+The errors checked for are transposed characters,
+a missing character, and one character too many.
+If a correction is found, the corrected file name is printed,
+and the command proceeds.
+This option is only used by interactive shells.
+.TP 8
+.B checkhash
+If set, \fBbash\fP checks that a command found in the hash
+table exists before trying to execute it.  If a hashed command no
+longer exists, a normal path search is performed.
+.TP 8
+.B checkwinsize
+If set, \fBbash\fP checks the window size after each command
+and, if necessary, updates the values of
+.SM
+.B LINES
+and
+.SM
+.BR COLUMNS .
+.TP 8
+.B cmdhist
+If set,
+.B bash
+attempts to save all lines of a multiple-line
+command in the same history entry.  This allows
+easy re-editing of multi-line commands.
+.TP 8
+.B dotglob
+If set, 
+.B bash
+includes filenames beginning with a `.' in the results of pathname
+expansion.
+.TP 8
+.B execfail
+If set, a non-interactive shell will not exit if
+it cannot execute the file specified as an argument to the
+.B exec
+builtin command.  An interactive shell does not exit if
+.B exec
+fails.
+.TP 8
+.B expand_aliases
+If set, aliases are expanded as described above under
+.SM
+.BR ALIASES .
+This option is enabled by default for interactive shells.
+.TP 8
+.B extdebug
+If set, behavior intended for use by debuggers is enabled:
+.RS
+.TP
+.B 1.
+The \fB\-F\fP option to the \fBdeclare\fP builtin displays the source
+file name and line number corresponding to each function name supplied
+as an argument.
+.TP
+.B 2.
+If the command run by the \fBDEBUG\fP trap returns a non-zero value, the
+next command is skipped and not executed.
+.TP
+.B 3.
+If the command run by the \fBDEBUG\fP trap returns a value of 2, and the
+shell is executing in a subroutine (a shell function or a shell script
+executed by the \fB.\fP or \fBsource\fP builtins), a call to
+\fBreturn\fP is simulated.
+.TP
+.B 4.
+\fBBASH_ARGC\fP and \fBBASH_ARGV\fP are updated as described in their
+descriptions above.
+.TP
+.B 5.
+Function tracing is enabled:  command substitution, shell functions, and
+subshells invoked with \fB(\fP \fIcommand\fP \fB)\fP inherit the
+\fBDEBUG\fP and \fBRETURN\fP traps.
+.TP
+.B 6.
+Error tracing is enabled:  command substitution, shell functions, and
+subshells invoked with \fB(\fP \fIcommand\fP \fB)\fP inherit the
+\fBERROR\fP trap.
+.RE
+.TP 8
+.B extglob
+If set, the extended pattern matching features described above under
+\fBPathname Expansion\fP are enabled.
+.TP 8
+.B extquote
+If set, \fB$\fP'\fIstring\fP' and \fB$\fP"\fIstring\fP" quoting is
+performed within \fB${\fP\fIparameter\fP\fB}\fP expansions
+enclosed in double quotes.  This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B failglob
+If set, patterns which fail to match filenames during pathname expansion
+result in an expansion error.
+.TP 8
+.B force_fignore
+If set, the suffixes specified by the \fBFIGNORE\fP shell variable
+cause words to be ignored when performing word completion even if
+the ignored words are the only possible completions.
+See
+.SM
+\fBSHELL VARIABLES\fP
+above for a description of \fBFIGNORE\fP.
+This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B gnu_errfmt
+If set, shell error messages are written in the standard GNU error
+message format.
+.TP 8
+.B histappend
+If set, the history list is appended to the file named by the value
+of the
+.B HISTFILE
+variable when the shell exits, rather than overwriting the file.
+.TP 8
+.B histreedit
+If set, and
+.B readline
+is being used, a user is given the opportunity to re-edit a
+failed history substitution.
+.TP 8
+.B histverify
+If set, and 
+.B readline
+is being used, the results of history substitution are not immediately
+passed to the shell parser.  Instead, the resulting line is loaded into
+the \fBreadline\fP editing buffer, allowing further modification.
+.TP 8
+.B hostcomplete
+If set, and
+.B readline
+is being used, \fBbash\fP will attempt to perform hostname completion when a
+word containing a \fB@\fP is being completed (see
+.B Completing
+under
+.SM
+.B READLINE
+above).
+This is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B huponexit
+If set, \fBbash\fP will send
+.SM
+.B SIGHUP
+to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits.
+.TP 8
+.B interactive_comments
+If set, allow a word beginning with
+.B #
+to cause that word and all remaining characters on that
+line to be ignored in an interactive shell (see
+.SM
+.B COMMENTS
+above).  This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B lithist
+If set, and the
+.B cmdhist
+option is enabled, multi-line commands are saved to the history with
+embedded newlines rather than using semicolon separators where possible.
+.TP 8
+.B login_shell
+The shell sets this option if it is started as a login shell (see
+.SM
+.B "INVOCATION"
+above).
+The value may not be changed.
+.TP 8
+.B mailwarn
+If set, and a file that \fBbash\fP is checking for mail has been  
+accessed since the last time it was checked, the message ``The mail in
+\fImailfile\fP has been read'' is displayed.
+.TP 8
+.B no_empty_cmd_completion
+If set, and
+.B readline
+is being used,
+.B bash
+will not attempt to search the \fBPATH\fP for possible completions when
+completion is attempted on an empty line.
+.TP 8
+.B nocaseglob
+If set,
+.B bash
+matches filenames in a case\-insensitive fashion when performing pathname
+expansion (see
+.B Pathname Expansion
+above).
+.TP 8
+.B nocasematch
+If set,
+.B bash
+matches patterns in a case\-insensitive fashion when performing matching
+while executing \fBcase\fP or \fB[[\fP conditional commands.
+.TP 8
+.B nullglob
+If set,
+.B bash
+allows patterns which match no
+files (see
+.B Pathname Expansion
+above)
+to expand to a null string, rather than themselves.
+.TP 8
+.B progcomp
+If set, the programmable completion facilities (see
+\fBProgrammable Completion\fP above) are enabled.
+This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B promptvars
+If set, prompt strings undergo
+parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
+expansion, and quote removal after being expanded as described in
+.SM
+.B PROMPTING
+above.  This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B restricted_shell
+The shell sets this option if it is started in restricted mode (see
+.SM
+.B "RESTRICTED SHELL"
+below).
+The value may not be changed.
+This is not reset when the startup files are executed, allowing
+the startup files to discover whether or not a shell is restricted.
+.TP 8
+.B shift_verbose
+If set, the
+.B shift
+builtin prints an error message when the shift count exceeds the
+number of positional parameters.
+.TP 8
+.B sourcepath
+If set, the
+\fBsource\fP (\fB.\fP) builtin uses the value of
+.SM
+.B PATH
+to find the directory containing the file supplied as an argument.
+This option is enabled by default.
+.TP 8
+.B xpg_echo
+If set, the \fBecho\fP builtin expands backslash-escape sequences
+by default.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBsuspend\fP [\fB\-f\fP]
+Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a
+.SM
+.B SIGCONT
+signal.  The
+.B \-f
+option says not to complain if this is 
+a login shell; just suspend anyway.  The return status is 0 unless
+the shell is a login shell and
+.B \-f
+is not supplied, or if job control is not enabled.
+.TP
+\fBtest\fP \fIexpr\fP
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fB[\fP \fIexpr\fP \fB]\fP
+Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on
+the evaluation of the conditional expression
+.IR expr .
+Each operator and operand must be a separate argument.
+Expressions are composed of the primaries described above under
+.SM
+.BR "CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS" .
+\fBtest\fP does not accept any options, nor does it accept and ignore
+an argument of \fB\-\-\fP as signifying the end of options.
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed
+in decreasing order of precedence.
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B ! \fIexpr\fP
+True if
+.I expr
+is false.
+.TP
+.B ( \fIexpr\fP )
+Returns the value of \fIexpr\fP.
+This may be used to override the normal precedence of operators.
+.TP
+\fIexpr1\fP \-\fBa\fP \fIexpr2\fP
+True if both
+.I expr1
+and
+.I expr2
+are true.
+.TP
+\fIexpr1\fP \-\fBo\fP \fIexpr2\fP
+True if either
+.I expr1
+or
+.I expr2
+is true.
+.PD
+.PP
+\fBtest\fP and \fB[\fP evaluate conditional
+expressions using a set of rules based on the number of arguments.
+.if t .sp 0.5
+.if n .sp 1
+.PD 0
+.TP
+0 arguments
+The expression is false.
+.TP
+1 argument
+The expression is true if and only if the argument is not null.
+.TP
+2 arguments
+If the first argument is \fB!\fP, the expression is true if and
+only if the second argument is null.
+If the first argument is one of the unary conditional operators listed above
+under
+.SM
+.BR "CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS" ,
+the expression is true if the unary test is true.
+If the first argument is not a valid unary conditional operator, the expression
+is false.
+.TP
+3 arguments
+If the second argument is one of the binary conditional operators listed above
+under
+.SM
+.BR "CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS" ,
+the result of the expression is the result of the binary test using
+the first and third arguments as operands.
+If the first argument is \fB!\fP, the value is the negation of
+the two-argument test using the second and third arguments.
+If the first argument is exactly \fB(\fP and the third argument is
+exactly \fB)\fP, the result is the one-argument test of the second
+argument.
+Otherwise, the expression is false.
+The \fB\-a\fP and \fB\-o\fP operators are considered binary operators
+in this case.  
+.TP
+4 arguments
+If the first argument is \fB!\fP, the result is the negation of
+the three-argument expression composed of the remaining arguments.
+Otherwise, the expression is parsed and evaluated according to 
+precedence using the rules listed above.
+.TP
+5 or more arguments
+The expression is parsed and evaluated according to precedence
+using the rules listed above.
+.RE
+.PD
+.TP
+.B times
+Print the accumulated user and system times for the shell and
+for processes run from the shell.  The return status is 0.
+.TP
+\fBtrap\fP [\fB\-lp\fP] [[\fIarg\fP] \fIsigspec\fP ...]
+The command
+.I arg
+is to be read and executed when the shell receives
+signal(s)
+.IR sigspec .
+If
+.I arg
+is absent (and there is a single \fIsigspec\fP) or
+.BR \- ,
+each specified signal is
+reset to its original disposition (the value it had
+upon entrance to the shell).
+If 
+.I arg
+is the null string the signal specified by each
+.I sigspec
+is ignored by the shell and by the commands it invokes.
+If
+.I arg
+is not present and
+.B \-p
+has been supplied, then the trap commands associated with each
+.I sigspec
+are displayed.
+If no arguments are supplied or if only
+.B \-p
+is given,
+.B trap
+prints the list of commands associated with each signal.
+The
+.B \-l
+option causes the shell to print a list of signal names and
+their corresponding numbers.
+Each
+.I sigspec
+is either
+a signal name defined in <\fIsignal.h\fP>, or a signal number.
+Signal names are case insensitive and the SIG prefix is optional.
+If a
+.I sigspec
+is
+.SM
+.B EXIT
+(0) the command
+.I arg
+is executed on exit from the shell.
+If a
+.I sigspec
+is
+.SM
+.BR DEBUG ,
+the command
+.I arg
+is executed before every \fIsimple command\fP, \fIfor\fP command,
+\fIcase\fP command, \fIselect\fP command, every arithmetic \fIfor\fP
+command, and before the first command executes in a shell function (see
+.SM
+.B SHELL GRAMMAR
+above).
+Refer to the description of the \fBextdebug\fP option to the
+\fBshopt\fP builtin for details of its effect on the \fBDEBUG\fP trap.
+If a
+.I sigspec
+is
+.SM
+.BR ERR ,
+the command
+.I arg
+is executed whenever a simple command has a non\-zero exit status,
+subject to the following conditions.
+The
+.SM
+.B ERR
+trap is not executed if the failed
+command is part of the command list immediately following a
+.B while
+or
+.B until
+keyword, 
+part of the test in an
+.I if
+statement, part of a
+.B &&
+or
+.B \(bv\(bv
+list, or if the command's return value is
+being inverted via
+.BR ! .
+These are the same conditions obeyed by the \fBerrexit\fP option.
+If a
+.I sigspec
+is
+.SM
+.BR RETURN ,
+the command
+.I arg
+is executed each time a shell function or a script executed with the
+\fB.\fP or \fBsource\fP builtins finishes executing.
+Signals ignored upon entry to the shell cannot be trapped or reset.
+Trapped signals are reset to their original values in a child
+process when it is created.
+The return status is false if any
+.I sigspec
+is invalid; otherwise
+.B trap
+returns true.
+.TP
+\fBtype\fP [\fB\-aftpP\fP] \fIname\fP [\fIname\fP ...]
+With no options, 
+indicate how each
+.I name
+would be interpreted if used as a command name.
+If the
+.B \-t
+option is used,
+.B type
+prints a string which is one of
+.IR alias ,
+.IR keyword ,
+.IR function ,
+.IR builtin ,
+or
+.I file 
+if
+.I name
+is an alias, shell reserved word, function, builtin, or disk file,
+respectively.
+If the
+.I name
+is not found, then nothing is printed, and an exit status of false
+is returned.
+If the
+.B \-p
+option is used,
+.B type
+either returns the name of the disk file
+that would be executed if
+.I name
+were specified as a command name,
+or nothing if
+.if t \f(CWtype -t name\fP
+.if n ``type -t name''
+would not return
+.IR file .
+The
+.B \-P
+option forces a
+.SM
+.B PATH
+search for each \fIname\fP, even if
+.if t \f(CWtype -t name\fP
+.if n ``type -t name''
+would not return
+.IR file .
+If a command is hashed,
+.B \-p
+and
+.B \-P
+print the hashed value, not necessarily the file that appears
+first in 
+.SM
+.BR PATH .
+If the
+.B \-a
+option is used, 
+.B type
+prints all of the places that contain
+an executable named 
+.IR name .
+This includes aliases and functions,
+if and only if the 
+.B \-p
+option is not also used.
+The table of hashed commands is not consulted
+when using
+.BR \-a .
+The
+.B \-f
+option suppresses shell function lookup, as with the \fBcommand\fP builtin.
+.B type
+returns true if any of the arguments are found, false if
+none are found.
+.TP
+\fBulimit\fP [\fB\-SHacdflmnpstuv\fP [\fIlimit\fP]]
+Provides control over the resources available to the shell and to
+processes started by it, on systems that allow such control.
+The \fB\-H\fP and \fB\-S\fP options specify that the hard or soft limit is
+set for the given resource.  A hard limit cannot be increased once it
+is set; a soft limit may be increased up to the value of the hard limit.
+If neither \fB\-H\fP nor \fB\-S\fP is specified, both the soft and hard
+limits are set.
+The value of
+.I limit
+can be a number in the unit specified for the resource
+or one of the special values
+.BR hard ,
+.BR soft ,
+or
+.BR unlimited ,
+which stand for the current hard limit, the current soft limit, and
+no limit, respectively.
+If
+.I limit
+is omitted, the current value of the soft limit of the resource is
+printed, unless the \fB\-H\fP option is given.  When more than one
+resource is specified, the limit name and unit are printed before the value.
+Other options are interpreted as follows:
+.RS
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.B \-a
+All current limits are reported
+.TP
+.B \-c
+The maximum size of core files created
+.TP
+.B \-d
+The maximum size of a process's data segment
+.TP
+.B \-f
+The maximum size of files created by the shell
+.TP
+.B \-l
+The maximum size that may be locked into memory
+.TP
+.B \-m
+The maximum resident set size
+.TP
+.B \-n
+The maximum number of open file descriptors (most systems do not
+allow this value to be set)
+.TP
+.B \-p
+The pipe size in 512-byte blocks (this may not be set)
+.TP
+.B \-s
+The maximum stack size
+.TP
+.B \-t
+The maximum amount of cpu time in seconds
+.TP
+.B \-u
+The maximum number of processes available to a single user
+.TP
+.B \-v
+The maximum amount of virtual memory available to the shell
+.PD
+.PP
+If
+.I limit
+is given, it is the new value of the specified resource (the
+.B \-a
+option is display only).
+If no option is given, then
+.B \-f
+is assumed.  Values are in 1024-byte increments, except for
+.BR \-t ,
+which is in seconds,
+.BR \-p ,
+which is in units of 512-byte blocks,
+and
+.B \-n
+and
+.BR \-u ,
+which are unscaled values.
+The return status is 0 unless an invalid option or argument is supplied,
+or an error occurs while setting a new limit.
+.RE
+.TP
+\fBumask\fP [\fB\-p\fP] [\fB\-S\fP] [\fImode\fP]
+The user file-creation mask is set to 
+.IR mode .
+If
+.I mode
+begins with a digit, it
+is interpreted as an octal number; otherwise
+it is interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar
+to that accepted by
+.IR chmod (1).
+If
+.I mode
+is omitted, the current value of the mask is printed.
+The
+.B \-S
+option causes the mask to be printed in symbolic form; the
+default output is an octal number.
+If the
+.B \-p
+option is supplied, and
+.I mode
+is omitted, the output is in a form that may be reused as input.
+The return status is 0 if the mode was successfully changed or if
+no \fImode\fP argument was supplied, and false otherwise.
+.TP
+\fBunalias\fP [\-\fBa\fP] [\fIname\fP ...]
+Remove each \fIname\fP from the list of defined aliases.  If
+.B \-a
+is supplied, all alias definitions are removed.  The return
+value is true unless a supplied
+.I name
+is not a defined alias.
+.TP
+\fBunset\fP [\-\fBfv\fP] [\fIname\fP ...]
+For each
+.IR name ,
+remove the corresponding variable or function.
+If no options are supplied, or the
+.B \-v
+option is given, each
+.I name
+refers to a shell variable.
+Read-only variables may not be unset.
+If
+.B \-f
+is specified, each
+.I name
+refers to a shell function, and the function definition
+is removed.
+Each unset variable or function is removed from the environment
+passed to subsequent commands.
+If any of
+.SM
+.BR RANDOM ,
+.SM
+.BR SECONDS ,
+.SM
+.BR LINENO ,
+.SM
+.BR HISTCMD ,
+.SM
+.BR FUNCNAME ,
+.SM
+.BR GROUPS ,
+or
+.SM
+.B DIRSTACK
+are unset, they lose their special properties, even if they are
+subsequently reset.  The exit status is true unless a
+.I name
+is readonly.
+.TP
+\fBwait\fP [\fIn ...\fP]
+Wait for each specified process and return its termination status.
+Each
+.I n
+may be a process
+ID or a job specification; if a job spec is given, all processes
+in that job's pipeline are waited for.  If
+.I n
+is not given, all currently active child processes
+are waited for, and the return status is zero.  If
+.I n
+specifies a non-existent process or job, the return status is
+127.  Otherwise, the return status is the exit status of the last
+process or job waited for.
+.\" bash_builtins
+.if \n(zZ=1 .ig zZ
+.SH "RESTRICTED SHELL"
+.\" rbash.1
+.zY
+.PP
+If
+.B bash
+is started with the name
+.BR rbash ,
+or the
+.B \-r
+option is supplied at invocation,
+the shell becomes restricted.
+A restricted shell is used to
+set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell.
+It behaves identically to
+.B bash
+with the exception that the following are disallowed or not performed:
+.IP \(bu
+changing directories with \fBcd\fP
+.IP \(bu
+setting or unsetting the values of
+.BR SHELL ,
+.BR PATH ,
+.BR ENV ,
+or
+.B BASH_ENV
+.IP \(bu
+specifying command names containing
+.B /
+.IP \(bu
+specifying a file name containing a
+.B /
+as an argument to the
+.B .
+builtin command
+.IP \(bu
+Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the
+.B \-p
+option to the
+.B hash
+builtin command
+.IP \(bu
+importing function definitions from the shell environment at startup
+.IP \(bu
+parsing the value of \fBSHELLOPTS\fP from the shell environment at startup
+.IP \(bu
+redirecting output using the >, >|, <>, >&, &>, and >> redirection operators
+.IP \(bu
+using the
+.B exec
+builtin command to replace the shell with another command
+.IP \(bu
+adding or deleting builtin commands with the
+.B \-f
+and
+.B \-d
+options to the
+.B enable
+builtin command
+.IP \(bu
+Using the \fBenable\fP builtin command to enable disabled shell builtins
+.IP \(bu
+specifying the
+.B \-p
+option to the
+.B command
+builtin command
+.IP \(bu
+turning off restricted mode with
+\fBset +r\fP or \fBset +o restricted\fP.
+.PP
+These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read.
+.PP
+.ie \n(zY=1 When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed,
+.el \{ When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed
+(see
+.SM
+.B "COMMAND EXECUTION"
+above),
+\}
+.B rbash
+turns off any restrictions in the shell spawned to execute the
+script.
+.\" end of rbash.1
+.if \n(zY=1 .ig zY
+.SH "SEE ALSO"
+.PD 0
+.TP
+\fIBash Reference Manual\fP, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
+.TP
+\fIThe Gnu Readline Library\fP, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
+.TP
+\fIThe Gnu History Library\fP, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
+.TP
+\fIPortable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2: Shell and Utilities\fP, IEEE
+.TP
+\fIsh\fP(1), \fIksh\fP(1), \fIcsh\fP(1)
+.TP
+\fIemacs\fP(1), \fIvi\fP(1)
+.TP
+\fIreadline\fP(3)
+.PD
+.SH FILES
+.PD 0
+.TP
+.FN /bin/bash
+The \fBbash\fP executable
+.TP
+.FN /etc/profile
+The systemwide initialization file, executed for login shells
+.TP
+.FN ~/.bash_profile
+The personal initialization file, executed for login shells
+.TP
+.FN ~/.bashrc
+The individual per-interactive-shell startup file
+.TP
+.FN ~/.bash_logout
+The individual login shell cleanup file, executed when a login shell exits
+.TP
+.FN ~/.inputrc
+Individual \fIreadline\fP initialization file
+.PD
+.SH AUTHORS
+Brian Fox, Free Software Foundation
+.br
+bfox@gnu.org
+.PP
+Chet Ramey, Case Western Reserve University
+.br
+chet@po.cwru.edu
+.SH BUG REPORTS
+If you find a bug in
+.B bash,
+you should report it.  But first, you should
+make sure that it really is a bug, and that it appears in the latest
+version of
+.BR bash .
+The latest version is always available from
+\fIftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/bash/\fP.
+.PP
+Once you have determined that a bug actually exists, use the
+.I bashbug
+command to submit a bug report.
+If you have a fix, you are encouraged to mail that as well!
+Suggestions and `philosophical' bug reports may be mailed
+to \fIbug-bash@gnu.org\fP or posted to the Usenet
+newsgroup
+.BR gnu.bash.bug .
+.PP
+ALL bug reports should include:
+.PP
+.PD 0
+.TP 20
+The version number of \fBbash\fR
+.TP
+The hardware and operating system
+.TP
+The compiler used to compile
+.TP
+A description of the bug behaviour
+.TP
+A short script or `recipe' which exercises the bug
+.PD
+.PP
+.I bashbug
+inserts the first three items automatically into the template
+it provides for filing a bug report.
+.PP
+Comments and bug reports concerning
+this manual page should be directed to
+.IR chet@po.cwru.edu .
+.SH BUGS
+.PP
+It's too big and too slow.
+.PP
+There are some subtle differences between 
+.B bash
+and traditional versions of
+.BR sh ,
+mostly because of the
+.SM
+.B POSIX
+specification.
+.PP
+Aliases are confusing in some uses.
+.PP
+Shell builtin commands and functions are not stoppable/restartable.
+.PP
+Compound commands and command sequences of the form `a ; b ; c'
+are not handled gracefully when process suspension is attempted.
+When a process is stopped, the shell immediately executes the next
+command in the sequence.
+It suffices to place the sequence of commands between
+parentheses to force it into a subshell, which may be stopped as
+a unit.
+.PP
+Commands inside of \fB$(\fP...\fB)\fP command substitution are not
+parsed until substitution is attempted.  This will delay error
+reporting until some time after the command is entered.  For example,
+unmatched parentheses, even inside shell comments, will result in
+error messages while the construct is being read.
+.PP
+Array variables may not (yet) be exported.
+.zZ
+.zY
diff --git a/doc/bashbug.1 b/doc/bashbug.1
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..971e4c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/bashbug.1
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+.TH BASHBUG 1 "1998 July 30" GNU
+.SH NAME
+bashbug \- report a bug in bash
+.SH SYNOPSIS
+\fBbashbug\fP [\fIaddress\fP]
+.SH DESCRIPTION
+.B bashbug
+is a shell script to help the user compose and mail bug reports
+concerning bash in a standard format.
+.B bashbug
+invokes the editor specified by the environment variable
+.SM
+.B EDITOR
+on a temporary copy of the bug report format outline. The user must
+fill in the appropriate fields and exit the editor.
+.B bashbug
+then mails the completed report to \fIbug-bash@gnu.org\fP, or
+\fIaddress\fP.  If the report cannot be mailed, it is saved in the
+file \fIdead.bashbug\fP in the invoking user's home directory.
+.PP
+The bug report format outline consists of several sections.  The first
+section provides information about the machine, operating system, the
+bash version, and the compilation environment.  The second section
+should be filled in with a description of the bug.  The third section
+should be a description of how to reproduce the bug.  The optional
+fourth section is for a proposed fix.  Fixes are encouraged.
+.SH ENVIRONMENT
+.B bashbug
+will utilize the following environment variables if they exist:
+.TP
+.B EDITOR
+Specifies the preferred editor. If
+.SM
+.B EDITOR
+is not set,
+.B bashbug
+defaults to
+.BR emacs .
+.TP
+.B HOME
+Directory in which the failed bug report is saved if the mail fails.
diff --git a/doc/bashref.texi b/doc/bashref.texi
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdc3df0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/bashref.texi
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+\input texinfo.tex @c -*- texinfo -*-
+@c %**start of header
+@setfilename bashref.info
+@settitle Bash Reference Manual
+@c %**end of header
+
+@dircategory Basics
+@direntry
+* Bash: (bash).                     The GNU Bourne-Again SHell.
+@end direntry
+
+@finalout
+
+@bye
diff --git a/doc/builtins.1 b/doc/builtins.1
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a0b248
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/builtins.1
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+.\" This is a hack to force bash builtins into the whatis database
+.\" and to get the list of builtins to come up with the man command.
+.TH BASH_BUILTINS 1 "2004 Apr 20" "GNU Bash-3.0"
+.SH NAME
+bash, :, ., [, alias, bg, bind, break, builtin, cd, command, compgen, complete, 
+continue, declare, dirs, disown, echo, enable, eval, exec, exit,
+export, fc, fg, getopts, hash, help, history, jobs, kill,
+let, local, logout, popd, printf, pushd, pwd, read, readonly, return, set,
+shift, shopt, source, suspend, test, times, trap, type, typeset,
+ulimit, umask, unalias, unset, wait \- bash built-in commands, see \fBbash\fR(1)
+.SH BASH BUILTIN COMMANDS
+.nr zZ 1
+.so bash.1
+.SH SEE ALSO
+bash(1), sh(1)
diff --git a/doc/fdl.texi b/doc/fdl.texi
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47ead9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/fdl.texi
@@ -0,0 +1,452 @@
+
+@node GNU Free Documentation License
+@appendixsec GNU Free Documentation License
+
+@cindex FDL, GNU Free Documentation License
+@center Version 1.2, November 2002
+
+@display
+Copyright @copyright{} 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA
+
+Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
+of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
+@end display
+
+@enumerate 0
+@item
+PREAMBLE
+
+The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
+functional and useful document @dfn{free} in the sense of freedom: to
+assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
+with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
+Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
+to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
+for modifications made by others.
+
+This License is a kind of ``copyleft'', which means that derivative
+works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.  It
+complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
+license designed for free software.
+
+We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
+software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
+program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
+software does.  But this License is not limited to software manuals;
+it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
+whether it is published as a printed book.  We recommend this License
+principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
+
+@item
+APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
+
+This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
+contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
+distributed under the terms of this License.  Such a notice grants a
+world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
+work under the conditions stated herein.  The ``Document'', below,
+refers to any such manual or work.  Any member of the public is a
+licensee, and is addressed as ``you''.  You accept the license if you
+copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
+under copyright law.
+
+A ``Modified Version'' of the Document means any work containing the
+Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
+modifications and/or translated into another language.
+
+A ``Secondary Section'' is a named appendix or a front-matter section
+of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
+publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
+subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
+directly within that overall subject.  (Thus, if the Document is in
+part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain
+any mathematics.)  The relationship could be a matter of historical
+connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
+commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
+them.
+
+The ``Invariant Sections'' are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
+are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
+that says that the Document is released under this License.  If a
+section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
+allowed to be designated as Invariant.  The Document may contain zero
+Invariant Sections.  If the Document does not identify any Invariant
+Sections then there are none.
+
+The ``Cover Texts'' are certain short passages of text that are listed,
+as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
+the Document is released under this License.  A Front-Cover Text may
+be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
+
+A ``Transparent'' copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
+represented in a format whose specification is available to the
+general public, that is suitable for revising the document
+straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
+pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
+drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
+for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
+to text formatters.  A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
+format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
+or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
+An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
+of text.  A copy that is not ``Transparent'' is called ``Opaque''.
+
+Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
+@sc{ascii} without markup, Texinfo input format, La@TeX{} input
+format, @acronym{SGML} or @acronym{XML} using a publicly available
+@acronym{DTD}, and standard-conforming simple @acronym{HTML},
+PostScript or @acronym{PDF} designed for human modification.  Examples
+of transparent image formats include @acronym{PNG}, @acronym{XCF} and
+@acronym{JPG}.  Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be
+read and edited only by proprietary word processors, @acronym{SGML} or
+@acronym{XML} for which the @acronym{DTD} and/or processing tools are
+not generally available, and the machine-generated @acronym{HTML},
+PostScript or @acronym{PDF} produced by some word processors for
+output purposes only.
+
+The ``Title Page'' means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
+plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
+this License requires to appear in the title page.  For works in
+formats which do not have any title page as such, ``Title Page'' means
+the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
+preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
+
+A section ``Entitled XYZ'' means a named subunit of the Document whose
+title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
+text that translates XYZ in another language.  (Here XYZ stands for a
+specific section name mentioned below, such as ``Acknowledgements'',
+``Dedications'', ``Endorsements'', or ``History''.)  To ``Preserve the Title''
+of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
+section ``Entitled XYZ'' according to this definition.
+
+The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
+states that this License applies to the Document.  These Warranty
+Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
+License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
+implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
+no effect on the meaning of this License.
+
+@item
+VERBATIM COPYING
+
+You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
+commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
+copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
+to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
+conditions whatsoever to those of this License.  You may not use
+technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
+copying of the copies you make or distribute.  However, you may accept
+compensation in exchange for copies.  If you distribute a large enough
+number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
+
+You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
+you may publicly display copies.
+
+@item
+COPYING IN QUANTITY
+
+If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
+printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
+Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
+copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
+Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
+the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
+you as the publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present
+the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
+visible.  You may add other material on the covers in addition.
+Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
+the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
+as verbatim copying in other respects.
+
+If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
+legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
+reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
+pages.
+
+If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
+more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
+copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
+a computer-network location from which the general network-using
+public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
+a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
+If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
+when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
+that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
+location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
+Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
+edition to the public.
+
+It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
+Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
+them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
+
+@item
+MODIFICATIONS
+
+You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
+the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
+the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
+Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
+and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
+of it.  In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
+
+@enumerate A
+@item
+Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
+from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
+(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
+of the Document).  You may use the same title as a previous version
+if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
+
+@item
+List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
+responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
+Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
+Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
+unless they release you from this requirement.
+
+@item
+State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
+Modified Version, as the publisher.
+
+@item
+Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
+
+@item
+Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
+adjacent to the other copyright notices.
+
+@item
+Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
+giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
+terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
+
+@item
+Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
+and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
+
+@item
+Include an unaltered copy of this License.
+
+@item
+Preserve the section Entitled ``History'', Preserve its Title, and add
+to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
+publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
+there is no section Entitled ``History'' in the Document, create one
+stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
+given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
+Version as stated in the previous sentence.
+
+@item
+Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
+public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
+the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
+it was based on.  These may be placed in the ``History'' section.
+You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
+least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
+publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
+
+@item
+For any section Entitled ``Acknowledgements'' or ``Dedications'', Preserve
+the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the
+substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
+dedications given therein.
+
+@item
+Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
+unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
+or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
+
+@item
+Delete any section Entitled ``Endorsements''.  Such a section
+may not be included in the Modified Version.
+
+@item
+Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ``Endorsements'' or
+to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
+
+@item
+Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
+@end enumerate
+
+If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
+appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
+copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
+of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
+list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
+These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
+
+You may add a section Entitled ``Endorsements'', provided it contains
+nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
+parties---for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
+been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
+standard.
+
+You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
+passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
+of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one passage of
+Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
+through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the Document already
+includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
+by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
+you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
+permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
+
+The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
+give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
+imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
+
+@item
+COMBINING DOCUMENTS
+
+You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
+License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
+versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
+Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
+list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
+license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
+
+The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
+multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
+copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
+different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
+adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
+author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
+Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
+Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
+
+In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ``History''
+in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
+``History''; likewise combine any sections Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
+and any sections Entitled ``Dedications''.  You must delete all
+sections Entitled ``Endorsements.''
+
+@item
+COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
+
+You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
+released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
+License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
+the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
+verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
+
+You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
+it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
+License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
+other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
+
+@item
+AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
+
+A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
+and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
+distribution medium, is called an ``aggregate'' if the copyright
+resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
+of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
+When the Document is included an aggregate, this License does not
+apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
+derivative works of the Document.
+
+If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
+copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
+the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
+covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
+electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
+Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
+aggregate.
+
+@item
+TRANSLATION
+
+Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
+distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
+Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
+permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
+translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
+original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
+translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
+Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
+the original English version of this License and the original versions
+of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement between
+the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
+or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
+
+If a section in the Document is Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
+``Dedications'', or ``History'', the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
+its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
+title.
+
+@item
+TERMINATION
+
+You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
+as expressly provided for under this License.  Any other attempt to
+copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
+automatically terminate your rights under this License.  However,
+parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
+License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
+parties remain in full compliance.
+
+@item
+FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
+
+The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
+of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
+versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
+differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
+@uref{http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/}.
+
+Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
+If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
+License ``or any later version'' applies to it, you have the option of
+following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
+of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
+Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
+number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
+as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
+@end enumerate
+
+@page
+@appendixsubsec ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
+
+To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
+the License in the document and put the following copyright and
+license notices just after the title page:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+  Copyright (C)  @var{year}  @var{your name}.
+  Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
+  under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
+  or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
+  with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
+  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
+  Free Documentation License''.
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
+replace the ``with...Texts.'' line with this:
+
+@smallexample
+@group
+    with the Invariant Sections being @var{list their titles}, with
+    the Front-Cover Texts being @var{list}, and with the Back-Cover Texts
+    being @var{list}.
+@end group
+@end smallexample
+
+If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
+combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
+situation.
+
+If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
+recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
+free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
+to permit their use in free software.
+
+@c Local Variables:
+@c ispell-local-pdict: "ispell-dict"
+@c End:
+
diff --git a/doc/fdl.txt b/doc/fdl.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..daa2dd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/fdl.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,397 @@
+		GNU Free Documentation License
+		  Version 1.2, November 2002
+
+
+ Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+     59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
+ Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
+ of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
+
+
+0. PREAMBLE
+
+The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
+functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
+assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
+with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
+Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
+to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
+for modifications made by others.
+
+This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
+works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.  It
+complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
+license designed for free software.
+
+We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
+software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
+program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
+software does.  But this License is not limited to software manuals;
+it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
+whether it is published as a printed book.  We recommend this License
+principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
+
+
+1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
+
+This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
+contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
+distributed under the terms of this License.  Such a notice grants a
+world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
+work under the conditions stated herein.  The "Document", below,
+refers to any such manual or work.  Any member of the public is a
+licensee, and is addressed as "you".  You accept the license if you
+copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
+under copyright law.
+
+A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
+Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
+modifications and/or translated into another language.
+
+A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
+the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
+publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject
+(or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly
+within that overall subject.  (Thus, if the Document is in part a
+textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any
+mathematics.)  The relationship could be a matter of historical
+connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
+commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
+them.
+
+The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
+are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
+that says that the Document is released under this License.  If a
+section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
+allowed to be designated as Invariant.  The Document may contain zero
+Invariant Sections.  If the Document does not identify any Invariant
+Sections then there are none.
+
+The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
+as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
+the Document is released under this License.  A Front-Cover Text may
+be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
+
+A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
+represented in a format whose specification is available to the
+general public, that is suitable for revising the document
+straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
+pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
+drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
+for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
+to text formatters.  A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
+format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
+or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
+An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
+of text.  A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".
+
+Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
+ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
+or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
+HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification.  Examples of
+transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG.  Opaque formats
+include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
+proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
+processing tools are not generally available, and the
+machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
+processors for output purposes only.
+
+The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
+plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
+this License requires to appear in the title page.  For works in
+formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
+the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
+preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
+
+A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose
+title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
+text that translates XYZ in another language.  (Here XYZ stands for a
+specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
+"Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".)  To "Preserve the Title"
+of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
+section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
+
+The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
+states that this License applies to the Document.  These Warranty
+Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
+License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
+implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
+no effect on the meaning of this License.
+
+
+2. VERBATIM COPYING
+
+You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
+commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
+copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
+to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
+conditions whatsoever to those of this License.  You may not use
+technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
+copying of the copies you make or distribute.  However, you may accept
+compensation in exchange for copies.  If you distribute a large enough
+number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
+
+You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
+you may publicly display copies.
+
+
+3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
+
+If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
+printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
+Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
+copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
+Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
+the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
+you as the publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present
+the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
+visible.  You may add other material on the covers in addition.
+Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
+the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
+as verbatim copying in other respects.
+
+If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
+legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
+reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
+pages.
+
+If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
+more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
+copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
+a computer-network location from which the general network-using
+public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
+a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
+If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
+when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
+that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
+location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
+Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
+edition to the public.
+
+It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
+Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
+them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
+
+
+4. MODIFICATIONS
+
+You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
+the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
+the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
+Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
+and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
+of it.  In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
+
+A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
+   from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
+   (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
+   of the Document).  You may use the same title as a previous version
+   if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
+B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
+   responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
+   Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
+   Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
+   unless they release you from this requirement.
+C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
+   Modified Version, as the publisher.
+D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
+E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
+   adjacent to the other copyright notices.
+F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
+   giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
+   terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
+G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
+   and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
+H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
+I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add
+   to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
+   publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
+   there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one
+   stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
+   given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
+   Version as stated in the previous sentence.
+J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
+   public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
+   the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
+   it was based on.  These may be placed in the "History" section.
+   You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
+   least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
+   publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
+K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
+   Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
+   the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
+   and/or dedications given therein.
+L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
+   unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
+   or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
+M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements".  Such a section
+   may not be included in the Modified Version.
+N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
+   or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
+O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
+
+If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
+appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
+copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
+of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
+list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
+These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
+
+You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
+nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
+parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
+been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
+standard.
+
+You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
+passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
+of Cover Texts in the Modified Version.  Only one passage of
+Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
+through arrangements made by) any one entity.  If the Document already
+includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
+by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
+you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
+permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
+
+The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
+give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
+imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
+
+
+5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
+
+You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
+License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
+versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
+Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
+list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
+license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
+
+The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
+multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
+copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
+different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
+adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
+author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
+Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
+Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
+
+In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
+in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
+"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
+and any sections Entitled "Dedications".  You must delete all sections
+Entitled "Endorsements".
+
+
+6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
+
+You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
+released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
+License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
+the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
+verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
+
+You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
+it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
+License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
+other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
+
+
+7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
+
+A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
+and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
+distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
+resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
+of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
+When the Document is included an aggregate, this License does not
+apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
+derivative works of the Document.
+
+If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
+copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
+the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
+covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
+electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
+Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
+aggregate.
+
+
+8. TRANSLATION
+
+Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
+distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
+Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
+permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
+translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
+original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
+translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
+Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
+the original English version of this License and the original versions
+of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement between
+the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
+or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
+
+If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
+"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
+its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
+title.
+
+
+9. TERMINATION
+
+You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
+as expressly provided for under this License.  Any other attempt to
+copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
+automatically terminate your rights under this License.  However,
+parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
+License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
+parties remain in full compliance.
+
+
+10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
+
+The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
+of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
+versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
+differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
+http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
+
+Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
+If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
+License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
+following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
+of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
+Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
+number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
+as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
+
+
+ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
+
+To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
+the License in the document and put the following copyright and
+license notices just after the title page:
+
+    Copyright (c)  YEAR  YOUR NAME.
+    Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
+    under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
+    or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
+    with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
+    A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
+    Free Documentation License".
+
+If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
+replace the "with...Texts." line with this:
+
+    with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
+    Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
+
+If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
+combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
+situation.
+
+If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
+recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
+free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
+to permit their use in free software.
diff --git a/doc/htmlpost.sh b/doc/htmlpost.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..51241b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/htmlpost.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+#! /bin/sh
+#
+# Some of these should really be done by man2html
+#
+# The ~/xxx links don't really work -- netscape doesn't expand the home
+# directory of the user running navigator
+#
+
+sed -e 's|<B>gnu.bash.bug</B>|<A HREF="news:gnu.bash.bug">gnu.bash.bug</A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>/bin/bash</I>|<A HREF="file:/bin/bash"><I>/bin/bash</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>/etc/profile</I>|<A HREF="file:/etc/profile"><I>/etc/profile</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.bash_profile</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.bash_profile"><I>~/.bash_profile</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.bash_login</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.bash_login"><I>~/.bash_login</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.profile</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.profile"><I>~/.profile</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.bashrc</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.bashrc"><I>~/.bashrc</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.bash_logout</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.bash_logout"><I>~/.bash_logout</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.bash_history</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.bash_history"><I>~/.bash_history</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>~/.inputrc</I>|<A HREF="file:~/.inputrc"><I>~/.inputrc</I></A>|g' \
+    -e 's|<I>/etc/inputrc</I>|<A HREF="file:/etc/inputrc"><I>/etc/inputrc</I></A>|g'
diff --git a/doc/infopost.sh b/doc/infopost.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..85c49b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/infopost.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+#! /bin/sh
+#
+# Some of these should really be done by options to makeinfo or by
+# using @setfilename, but this way we can have both bashref.info and
+# bash.info (for installing)
+#
+
+sed -e 's|bashref.info|bash.info|g'
diff --git a/doc/rbash.1 b/doc/rbash.1
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c148abf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/rbash.1
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+.TH RBASH 1 "2004 Apr 20" "GNU Bash-3.0"
+.SH NAME
+rbash \- restricted bash, see \fBbash\fR(1)
+.SH RESTRICTED SHELL
+.nr zY 1
+.so bash.1
+.SH SEE ALSO
+bash(1)
diff --git a/doc/rose94.ps b/doc/rose94.ps
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fff283
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/rose94.ps
@@ -0,0 +1,1581 @@
+%!PS-Adobe-3.0
+%%Creator: groff version 1.08
+%%DocumentNeededResources: font Times-Bold
+%%+ font Times-Italic
+%%+ font Times-Roman
+%%+ font Courier
+%%+ font Symbol
+%%DocumentSuppliedResources: procset grops 1.08 0
+%%Pages: 13
+%%PageOrder: Ascend
+%%Orientation: Portrait
+%%EndComments
+%%BeginProlog
+%%BeginResource: procset grops 1.08 0
+/setpacking where{
+pop
+currentpacking
+true setpacking
+}if
+/grops 120 dict dup begin
+/SC 32 def
+/A/show load def
+/B{0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/C{0 exch ashow}bind def
+/D{0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/E{0 rmoveto show}bind def
+/F{0 rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/G{0 rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/H{0 rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/I{0 exch rmoveto show}bind def
+/J{0 exch rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/K{0 exch rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/L{0 exch rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/M{rmoveto show}bind def
+/N{rmoveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/O{rmoveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/P{rmoveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/Q{moveto show}bind def
+/R{moveto 0 SC 3 -1 roll widthshow}bind def
+/S{moveto 0 exch ashow}bind def
+/T{moveto 0 exch 0 SC 5 2 roll awidthshow}bind def
+/SF{
+findfont exch
+[exch dup 0 exch 0 exch neg 0 0]makefont
+dup setfont
+[exch/setfont cvx]cvx bind def
+}bind def
+/MF{
+findfont
+[5 2 roll
+0 3 1 roll 
+neg 0 0]makefont
+dup setfont
+[exch/setfont cvx]cvx bind def
+}bind def
+/level0 0 def
+/RES 0 def
+/PL 0 def
+/LS 0 def
+/PLG{
+gsave newpath clippath pathbbox grestore
+exch pop add exch pop
+}bind def
+/BP{
+/level0 save def
+1 setlinecap
+1 setlinejoin
+72 RES div dup scale
+LS{
+90 rotate
+}{
+0 PL translate
+}ifelse
+1 -1 scale
+}bind def
+/EP{
+level0 restore
+showpage
+}bind def
+/DA{
+newpath arcn stroke
+}bind def
+/SN{
+transform
+.25 sub exch .25 sub exch
+round .25 add exch round .25 add exch
+itransform
+}bind def
+/DL{
+SN
+moveto
+SN
+lineto stroke
+}bind def
+/DC{
+newpath 0 360 arc closepath
+}bind def
+/TM matrix def
+/DE{
+TM currentmatrix pop
+translate scale newpath 0 0 .5 0 360 arc closepath
+TM setmatrix
+}bind def
+/RC/rcurveto load def
+/RL/rlineto load def
+/ST/stroke load def
+/MT/moveto load def
+/CL/closepath load def
+/FL{
+currentgray exch setgray fill setgray
+}bind def
+/BL/fill load def
+/LW/setlinewidth load def
+/RE{
+findfont
+dup maxlength 1 index/FontName known not{1 add}if dict begin
+{
+1 index/FID ne{def}{pop pop}ifelse
+}forall
+/Encoding exch def
+dup/FontName exch def
+currentdict end definefont pop
+}bind def
+/DEFS 0 def
+/EBEGIN{
+moveto
+DEFS begin
+}bind def
+/EEND/end load def
+/CNT 0 def
+/level1 0 def
+/PBEGIN{
+/level1 save def
+translate
+div 3 1 roll div exch scale
+neg exch neg exch translate
+0 setgray
+0 setlinecap
+1 setlinewidth
+0 setlinejoin
+10 setmiterlimit
+[]0 setdash
+/setstrokeadjust where{
+pop
+false setstrokeadjust
+}if
+/setoverprint where{
+pop
+false setoverprint
+}if
+newpath
+/CNT countdictstack def
+userdict begin
+/showpage{}def
+}bind def
+/PEND{
+clear
+countdictstack CNT sub{end}repeat
+level1 restore
+}bind def
+end def
+/setpacking where{
+pop
+setpacking
+}if
+%%EndResource
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Bold
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Italic
+%%IncludeResource: font Times-Roman
+%%IncludeResource: font Courier
+%%IncludeResource: font Symbol
+grops begin/DEFS 1 dict def DEFS begin/u{.001 mul}bind def end/RES 72 def/PL
+792 def/LS false def/ENC0[/asciicircum/asciitilde/Scaron/Zcaron/scaron/zcaron
+/Ydieresis/trademark/quotesingle/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef
+/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef
+/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/.notdef/space
+/exclam/quotedbl/numbersign/dollar/percent/ampersand/quoteright/parenleft
+/parenright/asterisk/plus/comma/hyphen/period/slash/zero/one/two/three/four
+/five/six/seven/eight/nine/colon/semicolon/less/equal/greater/question/at/A/B/C
+/D/E/F/G/H/I/J/K/L/M/N/O/P/Q/R/S/T/U/V/W/X/Y/Z/bracketleft/backslash
+/bracketright/circumflex/underscore/quoteleft/a/b/c/d/e/f/g/h/i/j/k/l/m/n/o/p/q
+/r/s/t/u/v/w/x/y/z/braceleft/bar/braceright/tilde/.notdef/quotesinglbase
+/guillemotleft/guillemotright/bullet/florin/fraction/perthousand/dagger
+/daggerdbl/endash/emdash/ff/fi/fl/ffi/ffl/dotlessi/dotlessj/grave/hungarumlaut
+/dotaccent/breve/caron/ring/ogonek/quotedblleft/quotedblright/oe/lslash
+/quotedblbase/OE/Lslash/.notdef/exclamdown/cent/sterling/currency/yen/brokenbar
+/section/dieresis/copyright/ordfeminine/guilsinglleft/logicalnot/minus
+/registered/macron/degree/plusminus/twosuperior/threesuperior/acute/mu
+/paragraph/periodcentered/cedilla/onesuperior/ordmasculine/guilsinglright
+/onequarter/onehalf/threequarters/questiondown/Agrave/Aacute/Acircumflex/Atilde
+/Adieresis/Aring/AE/Ccedilla/Egrave/Eacute/Ecircumflex/Edieresis/Igrave/Iacute
+/Icircumflex/Idieresis/Eth/Ntilde/Ograve/Oacute/Ocircumflex/Otilde/Odieresis
+/multiply/Oslash/Ugrave/Uacute/Ucircumflex/Udieresis/Yacute/Thorn/germandbls
+/agrave/aacute/acircumflex/atilde/adieresis/aring/ae/ccedilla/egrave/eacute
+/ecircumflex/edieresis/igrave/iacute/icircumflex/idieresis/eth/ntilde/ograve
+/oacute/ocircumflex/otilde/odieresis/divide/oslash/ugrave/uacute/ucircumflex
+/udieresis/yacute/thorn/ydieresis]def/Courier@0 ENC0/Courier RE/Times-Roman@0
+ENC0/Times-Roman RE/Times-Italic@0 ENC0/Times-Italic RE/Times-Bold@0 ENC0
+/Times-Bold RE
+%%EndProlog
+%%Page: 1 1
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 12/Times-Bold@0 SF(Bash, the Bour)210.99 123 Q(ne\255Again Shell)-.18 E/F1
+10/Times-Italic@0 SF(Chet Rame)263.85 147 Q(y)-.3 E(Case W)221.72 159 Q
+(estern Reserve Univer)-.92 E(sity)-.1 E -.15(ch)250.425 171 S(et@po.cwru.edu)
+.15 E(ABSTRA)264.535 213 Q(CT)-.3 E/F2 10/Times-Roman@0 SF .019(An o)133 237 R
+-.15(ve)-.15 G(rvie).15 E 2.519(wo)-.25 G 2.519(f/)191.918 237 S .018
+(bin/sh\255compatible shells is presented, as well as an introduction to)
+200.547 237 R .128(the POSIX.2 shell and tools standard.)108 249 R .128
+(These serv)5.128 F 2.628(ea)-.15 G 2.628(sa)318.562 249 S 2.628(ni)329.52 249
+S .128(ntroduction to bash.)339.928 249 R 2.628(Ac)5.128 G(ompar)439.32 249 Q
+(-)-.2 E .188(ison of bash to sh and ksh is presented, as well as a discussion\
+ of features unique to bash.)108 261 R(Finally)108 273 Q 3.178(,s)-.65 G .678
+(ome of the changes and ne)145.258 273 R 3.178(wf)-.25 G .678
+(eatures to appear in the ne)268.486 273 R .678(xt bash release will be)-.15 F
+(discussed.)108 285 Q/F3 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(1. Intr)72 321 R(oduction)-.18
+E(Bash)97 336.6 Q F2 .904(is the shell, or command language interpreter)3.404 F
+3.404(,t)-.4 G .904(hat will appear in the GNU operating system.)316.032 336.6
+R .782(The name is an acron)72 348.6 R .782(ym for the `)-.15 F(`Bourne\255Ag)
+-.74 E .782(ain SHell')-.05 F .782(', a pun on Ste)-.74 F 1.082 -.15(ve B)-.25
+H .783(ourne, the author of the direct).15 F .212(ancestor of the current)72
+360.6 R/F4 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)2.712 E F2 2.712<8773>C(hell)199.131 360.6 Q
+F1(/bin/sh)2.712 E F2 2.712(,w)C .212(hich appeared in the Se)256.505 360.6 R
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .211(nth Edition Bell Labs Research v).15 F(er)-.15 E(-)-.2 E
+(sion of)72 372.6 Q F4(UNIX)2.5 E F2([1].).833 E .191(Bash is an)97 388.2 R F3
+(sh)2.691 E F2 .192
+(\255compatible shell that incorporates useful features from the K)B .192
+(orn shell \()-.35 F F3(ksh)A F2 .833(\)[)C .192(2] and the)-.833 F 2.767(Cs)72
+400.2 S .267(hell \()85.327 400.2 R F3(csh)A F2 .833(\)[)C .267
+(3], described later in this article.)-.833 F .266
+(It is ultimately intended to be a conformant implementation)5.267 F 1.965
+(of the IEEE POSIX Shell and T)72 412.2 R 1.966(ools speci\214cation \(IEEE W)
+-.8 F 1.966(orking Group 1003.2\).)-.8 F 1.966(It of)6.966 F 1.966
+(fers functional)-.25 F(impro)72 424.2 Q -.15(ve)-.15 G(ments o).15 E -.15(ve)
+-.15 G 2.5(rs).15 G 2.5(hf)155.28 424.2 S(or both interacti)166.11 424.2 Q .3
+-.15(ve a)-.25 H(nd programming use.).15 E .802
+(While the GNU operating system will most lik)97 439.8 R .801(ely include a v)
+-.1 F .801(ersion of the Berk)-.15 F(ele)-.1 E 3.301(ys)-.15 G .801
+(hell csh, bash)448.238 439.8 R .108(will be the def)72 451.8 R .108
+(ault shell.)-.1 F(Lik)5.108 E 2.608(eo)-.1 G .108(ther GNU softw)199.658 451.8
+R .108(are, bash is quite portable.)-.1 F .109(It currently runs on nearly e)
+5.109 F -.15(ve)-.25 G(ry).15 E -.15(ve)72 463.8 S .367(rsion of).15 F F4(UNIX)
+2.867 E F2 .367(and a fe)2.867 F 2.867(wo)-.25 G .367
+(ther operating systems \255 an independently-supported port e)187.933 463.8 R
+.366(xists for OS/2, and)-.15 F .706(there are rumors of ports to DOS and W)72
+475.8 R(indo)-.4 E .706(ws NT)-.25 F 5.706(.P)-.74 G .706(orts to)295.97 475.8
+R F4(UNIX)3.206 E F2(-lik)A 3.206(es)-.1 G .706(ystems such as QNX and Minix)
+372.979 475.8 R(are part of the distrib)72 487.8 Q(ution.)-.2 E .51
+(The original author of bash w)97 503.4 R .51(as Brian F)-.1 F .509
+(ox, an emplo)-.15 F .509(yee of the Free Softw)-.1 F .509(are F)-.1 F 3.009
+(oundation. The)-.15 F(cur)3.009 E(-)-.2 E(rent de)72 515.4 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G
+(loper and maintainer is Chet Rame).15 E 1.3 -.65(y, a v)-.15 H(olunteer who w)
+.45 E(orks at Case W)-.1 E(estern Reserv)-.8 E 2.5(eU)-.15 G(ni)458.91 515.4 Q
+-.15(ve)-.25 G(rsity).15 E(.)-.65 E F3 2.5(2. What)72 539.4 R(is a shell?)2.5 E
+F2 1.241(At its base, a shell is simply a macro processor that e)97 555 R -.15
+(xe)-.15 G 1.242(cutes commands.).15 F(A)6.242 E F4(UNIX)3.742 E F2 1.242
+(shell is both a)3.742 F .189(command interpreter)72 567 R 2.688(,w)-.4 G .188
+(hich pro)167.787 567 R .188(vides the user interf)-.15 F .188
+(ace to the rich set of)-.1 F F4(UNIX)2.688 E F2 .188
+(utilities, and a programming)2.688 F .751(language, allo)72 579 R .752
+(wing these utilitites to be combined.)-.25 F .752
+(The shell reads commands either from a terminal or a)5.752 F 2.52
+(\214le. Files)72 591 R .019
+(containing commands can be created, and become commands themselv)2.52 F 2.519
+(es. These)-.15 F(ne)2.519 E 2.519(wc)-.25 G(ommands)465.11 591 Q(ha)72 603 Q
+.395 -.15(ve t)-.2 H .095(he same status as system commands in directories lik)
+.15 F(e)-.1 E F3(/bin)2.595 E F2 2.595(,a)C(llo)342.575 603 Q .096
+(wing users or groups to establish cus-)-.25 F(tom en)72 615 Q(vironments.)-.4
+E F3 2.5(2.1. Command)72 639 R(Inter)2.5 E(pr)-.1 E(eter)-.18 E F2 2.926(As)97
+654.6 S .426(hell allo)111.036 654.6 R .426(ws e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .426
+(cution of).15 F F4(UNIX)2.926 E F2 .426
+(commands, both synchronously and asynchronously)2.926 F 5.425(.T)-.65 G(he)
+460.165 654.6 Q F1 -.37(re)2.925 G(dir).37 E(ec-)-.37 E(tion)72 666.6 Q F2 .334
+(constructs permit \214ne-grained control of the input and output of those com\
+mands, and the shell allo)2.833 F(ws)-.25 E .559(control o)72 678.6 R -.15(ve)
+-.15 G 3.058(rt).15 G .558(he contents of their en)126.697 678.6 R(vironment.)
+-.4 E F4(UNIX)5.558 E F2 .558(shells also pro)3.058 F .558
+(vide a small set of b)-.15 F .558(uilt-in commands)-.2 F(\()72 690.6 Q F1 -.2
+(bu)C(iltins).2 E F2 4.611(\)i)C 2.112
+(mplementing functionality impossible \(e.g.,)115.861 690.6 R F3(cd)4.612 E F2
+(,)A F3(br)4.612 E(eak)-.18 E F2(,)A F3(continue)4.612 E F2 4.612(,a)C(nd)
+399.074 690.6 Q F3(exec)4.612 E F2 4.612(\)o)C 4.612(ri)444.948 690.6 S(ncon)
+455.67 690.6 Q -.15(ve)-.4 G(nient).15 E .32 LW 76 700.6 72 700.6 DL 80 700.6
+76 700.6 DL 84 700.6 80 700.6 DL 88 700.6 84 700.6 DL 92 700.6 88 700.6 DL 96
+700.6 92 700.6 DL 100 700.6 96 700.6 DL 104 700.6 100 700.6 DL 108 700.6 104
+700.6 DL 112 700.6 108 700.6 DL 116 700.6 112 700.6 DL 120 700.6 116 700.6 DL
+124 700.6 120 700.6 DL 128 700.6 124 700.6 DL 132 700.6 128 700.6 DL 136 700.6
+132 700.6 DL 140 700.6 136 700.6 DL 144 700.6 140 700.6 DL/F5 8/Times-Roman@0
+SF 2<8755>72 710.6 S(NIX is a trademark of X/OPEN)83.776 710.6 Q EP
+%%Page: 2 2
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-2-)279.67 48 S(\()72 84 Q/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF
+(history)A F0(,)A F1(getopts)3.505 E F0(,)A F1(kill)3.505 E F0 3.505(,o)C(r)
+172.795 84 Q F1(pwd)3.505 E F0 3.505(,f)C 1.005(or e)207.305 84 R 1.005
+(xample\) to obtain via separate utilities.)-.15 F 1.005
+(Shells may be used interac-)6.005 F(ti)72 96 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G
+(ly or non-interacti).15 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.5(ly: the).15 F 2.5(ya)-.15 G
+(ccept input typed from the k)207.42 96 Q -.15(ey)-.1 G
+(board or from a \214le.).15 E F1 2.5(2.2. Pr)72 120 R(ogramming Language)-.18
+E F0 .501(While e)97 135.6 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .501
+(cuting commands is essential, most of the po).15 F .501(wer \(and comple)-.25
+F .502(xity\) of shells is due to their)-.15 F .05
+(embedded programming languages.)72 147.6 R(Lik)5.049 E 2.549(ea)-.1 G .349
+-.15(ny h)245.398 147.6 T(igh-le).15 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.549(ll).15 G .049
+(anguage, the shell pro)303.276 147.6 R .049(vides v)-.15 F .049
+(ariables, \215o)-.25 F 2.549(wc)-.25 G(ontrol)480.11 147.6 Q
+(constructs, quoting, and functions.)72 159.6 Q .475
+(The basic syntactic element is a)97 175.2 R/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF .475
+(simple command)2.975 F F0 5.475(.A)C .475
+(simple command consists of an optional set of)315.405 175.2 R -.25(va)72 187.2
+S .525(riable assignments, a command w).25 F .525
+(ord, and an optional list of ar)-.1 F 3.024(guments. Operators)-.18 F .524
+(to redirect input and)3.024 F(output may appear an)72 199.2 Q
+(ywhere in a simple command.)-.15 E(Some e)5 E(xamples are:)-.15 E/F3 10
+/Courier@0 SF(who)97 211.2 Q(trn -e -S1 -N)97 223.2 Q(ls -l /bin > binfiles)97
+235.2 Q(make > make.out 2>make.errs)97 247.2 Q F0 2.518(Ap)97 262.8 S .018
+(ipeline is a sequence of tw)111.738 262.8 R 2.518(oo)-.1 G 2.518(rm)230.056
+262.8 S .018(ore commands separated by the character)243.684 262.8 R/F4 10
+/Symbol SF<ef>2.519 E F0 5.019(.T)C .019(he standard output)430.082 262.8 R
+(of the \214rst command is connected to the standard input of the second.)72
+274.8 Q(Examples of pipelines include:)5 E F3(who | wc -l)97 286.8 Q
+(ls -l | sort +3nr)97 298.8 Q F0 .578
+(Simple commands and pipelines may be combined into)97 314.4 R F2(lists)3.078 E
+F0 5.578(.A)C .578(list is a sequence of pipelines sepa-)360.002 314.4 R .289
+(rated by one of)72 326.4 R F1(;)2.789 E F0(,)A F1(&)2.789 E F0(,)A F1(&&)2.789
+E F0 2.789(,o)C(r)185.103 326.4 Q F4<efef>2.789 E F0 2.789(,a)C .289
+(nd optionally terminated by)210.831 326.4 R F1(;)2.789 E F0(,)A F1(&)2.789 E
+F0 2.789(,o)C 2.789(ran)352.555 326.4 S -.25(ew)370.903 326.4 S 2.789
+(line. Commands).25 F .289(separated by)2.789 F F1(;)72 338.4 Q F0 .336(are e)
+2.836 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .336(cuted sequentially; the shell w).15 F .335
+(aits for each to complete in turn.)-.1 F .335(If a command is terminated by)
+5.335 F F1(&)2.835 E F0(,)A .007(the shell e)72 350.4 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .007
+(cutes it in the).15 F F2(bac)2.507 E(kgr)-.2 E(ound)-.45 E F0 2.508(,a)1.666 G
+.008(nd does not w)236.076 350.4 R .008(ait for it to \214nish.)-.1 F .008
+(If tw)5.008 F 2.508(oc)-.1 G .008(ommands are separated by)397.616 350.4 R F1
+(&&)72 362.4 Q F0 3.008(,t)C .508(he second command e)96.948 362.4 R -.15(xe)
+-.15 G .508(cutes only if the \214rst command succeeds.).15 F 3.007(As)5.508 G
+.507(eparator of)383.575 362.4 R F4<efef>3.007 E F0 .507(causes the sec-)3.007
+F(ond command to e)72 374.4 Q -.15(xe)-.15 G(cute only if the \214rst f).15 E
+2.5(ails. Some)-.1 F -.15(ex)2.5 G(amples are:).15 E F3(who ; date)97 386.4 Q
+(cd /usr/src || exit 1)97 398.4 Q(cd "$@" && xtitle $HOST: $PWD)97 410.4 Q F0
+1.36(The shell programming language pro)97 426 R 1.361(vides a v)-.15 F 1.361
+(ariety of \215o)-.25 F 3.861(wc)-.25 G 1.361(ontrol structures.)353.276 426 R
+(The)6.361 E F1 -.25(fo)3.861 G(r).25 E F0(command)3.861 E(allo)72 438 Q .654
+(ws a list of commands to be e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .654
+(cuted once for each w).15 F .654(ord in a w)-.1 F .654(ord list.)-.1 F(The)
+5.654 E F1(case)3.154 E F0 .654(command allo)3.154 F .654(ws a)-.25 F .627
+(list to be e)72 450 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .628(cuted if a w).15 F .628
+(ord matches a speci\214ed pattern.)-.1 F(The)5.628 E F1(while)3.128 E F0(and)
+3.128 E F1(until)3.128 E F0 .628(commands e)3.128 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .628
+(cute a list of).15 F 1.559
+(commands as long as a guard command completes successfully or f)72 462 R 1.559
+(ails, respecti)-.1 F -.15(ve)-.25 G(ly).15 E 6.559(.T)-.65 G(he)440.892 462 Q
+F1(if)4.059 E F0(command)4.059 E(allo)72 474 Q(ws e)-.25 E -.15(xe)-.15 G
+(cution of dif).15 E(ferent command lists depending on the e)-.25 E
+(xit status of a guard command.)-.15 E(A)97 489.6 Q F2 .385(shell function)
+2.885 F F0 .385(associates a list of commands with a name.)2.885 F .386
+(Each time the name is used as a simple)5.385 F .938(command, the list is e)72
+501.6 R -.15(xe)-.15 G 3.438(cuted. This).15 F -.15(exe)3.438 G .938
+(cution tak).15 F .938(es place in the current shell conte)-.1 F .937
+(xt; no ne)-.15 F 3.437(wp)-.25 G .937(rocess is)468.903 501.6 R 2.5
+(created. Functions)72 513.6 R(may ha)2.5 E .3 -.15(ve t)-.2 H(heir o).15 E
+(wn ar)-.25 E(gument lists and local v)-.18 E(ariables, and may be recursi)-.25
+E -.15(ve)-.25 G(.).15 E .722(The shell language pro)97 529.2 R .722(vides v)
+-.15 F .722(ariables, which may be both set and referenced.)-.25 F 3.222(An)
+5.722 G .722(umber of special)435.906 529.2 R 1.02
+(parameters are present, such as)72 541.2 R F1($@)3.519 E F0 3.519(,w)C 1.019
+(hich returns the shell')231.257 541.2 R 3.519(sp)-.55 G 1.019
+(ositional parameters \(command-line ar)333.103 541.2 R(gu-)-.18 E(ments\),)72
+553.2 Q F1($?)2.906 E F0 2.906(,t)C .406(he e)122.812 553.2 R .406
+(xit status of the pre)-.15 F .406(vious command, and)-.25 F F1($$)2.906 E F0
+2.906(,t)C .406(he shell')322.436 553.2 R 2.906(sp)-.55 G .406(rocess I.D.)
+368.248 553.2 R .407(In addition to pro)5.406 F(vid-)-.15 E .129
+(ing special parameters and user)72 565.2 R .129(-de\214ned v)-.2 F .129
+(ariables, the shell permits the v)-.25 F .128(alues of certain v)-.25 F .128
+(ariables to control)-.25 F .16(its beha)72 577.2 R(vior)-.2 E 5.16(.S)-.55 G
+.16(ome of these v)131.57 577.2 R .16(ariables include)-.25 F F1(IFS)2.661 E F0
+2.661(,w)C .161(hich controls ho)284.202 577.2 R 2.661(wt)-.25 G .161
+(he shell splits w)361.375 577.2 R(ords,)-.1 E F1 -.74(PA)2.661 G(TH)-.21 E F0
+2.661(,w)C(hich)486.78 577.2 Q .392
+(tells the shell where to look for commands, and)72 589.2 R F1(PS1)2.892 E F0
+2.892(,w)C .392(hose v)297.01 589.2 R .392
+(alue is the string the shell uses to prompt for)-.25 F 3.371(commands. There)
+72 601.2 R .871(are a fe)3.371 F 3.371(wv)-.25 G .871(ariables whose v)196.645
+601.2 R .871(alues are set by the shell and normally only referenced by)-.25 F
+(users;)72 613.2 Q F1(PWD)3.663 E F0 3.663(,w)C 1.163(hose v)135.706 613.2 R
+1.163(alue is the pathname of the shell')-.25 F 3.662(sc)-.55 G 1.162(urrent w)
+313.068 613.2 R 1.162(orking directory)-.1 F 3.662(,i)-.65 G 3.662(so)421.894
+613.2 S 1.162(ne such v)434.446 613.2 R(ariable.)-.25 E -1.11(Va)72 625.2 S
+.008(riables can be used in nearly an)1.11 F 2.509(ys)-.15 G .009(hell conte)
+219.37 625.2 R .009(xt and are particularly v)-.15 F .009
+(aluable when used with control struc-)-.25 F(tures.)72 637.2 Q .583
+(There are se)97 652.8 R -.15(ve)-.25 G .583(ral shell).15 F F2 -.2(ex)3.083 G
+(pansions).2 E F0 5.583(.A)C -.25(va)254.298 652.8 S(riable).25 E F2(name)3.083
+E F0 .583(is e)3.083 F .582(xpanded to its v)-.15 F .582(alue using ${)-.25 F
+F2(name)A F0 .582(}, where)B 1.387(the braces are optional.)72 664.8 R 1.387
+(There are a number of parameter e)6.387 F 1.388(xpansions a)-.15 F -.25(va)-.2
+G 3.888(ilable. F).25 F 1.388(or e)-.15 F 1.388(xample, there are)-.15 F(${)72
+676.8 Q F2(name)A F0<3aad>A F2(wor)A(d)-.37 E F0 .891(}, which e)B .891
+(xpands to)-.15 F F2(wor)3.391 E(d)-.37 E F0(if)3.391 E F2(name)3.391 E F0 .891
+(is unset or null, and the in)3.391 F -.15(ve)-.4 G .89(rse ${).15 F F2(name)A
+F0(:+)A F2(wor)A(d)-.37 E F0 .89(}, which)B -.15(ex)72 688.8 S 1.203(pands to)
+.15 F F2(wor)3.703 E(d)-.37 E F0(if)3.703 E F2(name)3.703 E F0 1.203
+(is set and not null.)3.703 F F2 1.203(Command substitution)6.203 F F0(allo)
+3.703 E 1.204(ws the output of a command to)-.25 F .918
+(replace the command name.)72 700.8 R .918(The syntax is `)5.918 F F2(command)A
+F0(`.)A F2(Command)5.918 E F0 .918(is e)3.418 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .918
+(cuted and it and the backquotes).15 F .299
+(are replaced by its output, with trailing ne)72 712.8 R .299(wlines remo)-.25
+F -.15(ve)-.15 G(d.).15 E F2 -.8(Pa)5.299 G .299(thname e).8 F(xpansion)-.2 E
+F0 .299(is a w)2.799 F .299(ay to e)-.1 F .299(xpand a w)-.15 F(ord)-.1 E 1.586
+(to a set of \214lenames.)72 724.8 R -.8(Wo)6.586 G 1.586(rds are re).8 F -.05
+(ga)-.15 G 1.586(rded as patterns, in which the characters).05 F F1(*)4.086 E
+F0(,)A F1(?)4.086 E F0 4.085(,a)C(nd)432.115 724.8 Q F1([)4.085 E F0(ha)4.085 E
+1.885 -.15(ve s)-.2 H(pecial).15 E EP
+%%Page: 3 3
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-3-)279.67 48 S 2.845(meaning. W)72 84 R .346(ords\
+ containing these special characters are replaced with a sorted list of matchi\
+ng pathnames.)-.8 F(If a w)72 96 Q
+(ord generates no matches, it is left unchanged.)-.1 E/F1 10/Times-Italic@0 SF
+(Quoting)97 111.6 Q F0 .85(is used to remo)3.35 F 1.15 -.15(ve t)-.15 H .85
+(he special meaning of characters or w).15 F 3.35(ords. It)-.1 F .85
+(can disable special treat-)3.35 F .314
+(ment for shell operators or other special characters, pre)72 123.6 R -.15(ve)
+-.25 G .315(nt reserv).15 F .315(ed w)-.15 F .315
+(ords from being recognized as such,)-.1 F .683(and inhibit v)72 135.6 R .683
+(ariable e)-.25 F 3.183(xpansion. The)-.15 F .683
+(shell has three quoting mechanisms:)3.183 F 3.183(ab)5.683 G .683
+(ackslash preserv)387.413 135.6 R .682(es the literal)-.15 F -.25(va)72 147.6 S
+.417(lue of the ne).25 F .417(xt character)-.15 F 2.917(,ap)-.4 G .417
+(air of single quotes preserv)196.712 147.6 R .417(es the literal v)-.15 F .418
+(alue of each character between the)-.25 F 1.426
+(quotes, and a pair of double quotes preserv)72 159.6 R 1.425
+(es the literal meaning of enclosed characters while allo)-.15 F(wing)-.25 E
+(some e)72 171.6 Q(xpansions.)-.15 E 1.054(Some of the commands b)97 187.2 R
+1.054(uilt into the shell are part of the programming language.)-.2 F(The)6.055
+E/F2 10/Times-Bold@0 SF(br)3.555 E(eak)-.18 E F0(and)3.555 E F2(continue)72
+199.2 Q F0 1.175(commands control loop e)3.675 F -.15(xe)-.15 G 1.175
+(cution as in the C language.).15 F(The)6.175 E F2 -2.3 -.15(ev a)3.675 H(l).15
+E F0 -.2(bu)3.675 G 1.174(iltin allo).2 F 1.174(ws a string to be)-.25 F .204
+(parsed and e)72 211.2 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .204(cuted as a command.).15 F F2 -.65
+(Wa)5.205 G(it).65 E F0 .205
+(tells the shell to pause until the processes speci\214ed as ar)2.705 F
+(guments)-.18 E(ha)72 223.2 Q .3 -.15(ve ex)-.2 H(ited.).15 E F2 2.5
+(2.3. Interacti)72 247.2 R .2 -.1(ve F)-.1 H(eatur)-.15 E(es)-.18 E F0 .51
+(Shells ha)97 262.8 R .81 -.15(ve b)-.2 H -.15(eg).15 G .51(un of).15 F .51
+(fering features geared speci\214cally for interacti)-.25 F .81 -.15(ve u)-.25
+H .51(se rather than to augment the).15 F .76(programming language.)72 274.8 R
+.761(These interacti)5.76 F 1.061 -.15(ve f)-.25 H .761
+(eatures include job control, command line editing, history and).15 F(aliases.)
+72 286.8 Q .626(Job control is a f)97 302.4 R .626(acility pro)-.1 F .626
+(vided jointly by the shell and the)-.15 F/F3 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)3.125 E
+F0 -.1(ke)3.125 G .625(rnel that allo).1 F .625(ws users to selec-)-.25 F(ti)72
+314.4 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G .344
+(ly stop \(suspend\) and restart \(resume\) processes.).15 F .345
+(Each pipeline e)5.345 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .345
+(cuted by the shell is referred to as a).15 F F1(job)72 326.4 Q F0 2.989(.J)C
+.488(obs may be suspended and restarted in either the fore)94.159 326.4 R .488
+(ground, where the)-.15 F 2.988(yh)-.15 G -2.25 -.2(av e)397.148 326.4 T .488
+(access to the terminal,)3.188 F .833(or background, where the)72 338.4 R 3.333
+(ya)-.15 G .834(re isolated and cannot read from the terminal.)189.312 338.4 R
+-.8(Ty)5.834 G .834(ping the).8 F F1(suspend)3.334 E F0(character)5 E .459(whi\
+le a process is running stops that process and returns control to the shell.)72
+350.4 R .459(Once a job is suspended, the)5.459 F .392
+(user manipulates the job')72 362.4 R 2.892(ss)-.55 G .392(tate, using)184.118
+362.4 R F2(bg)2.892 E F0 .393(to continue it in the background,)2.892 F F2(fg)
+2.893 E F0 .393(to return it to the fore)2.893 F(ground)-.15 E .891(and a)72
+374.4 R -.1(wa)-.15 G .891(it its completion, or).1 F F2(kill)3.391 E F0 .891
+(to send it a signal.)3.391 F(The)5.89 E F2(jobs)3.39 E F0 .89
+(command lists the status of jobs, and)3.39 F F2(wait)3.39 E F0 .407
+(will pause the shell until a speci\214ed job terminates.)72 386.4 R .407
+(The shell pro)5.407 F .407(vides a number of w)-.15 F .407
+(ays to refer to a job,)-.1 F(and will notify the user whene)72 398.4 Q -.15
+(ve)-.25 G 2.5(rab).15 G(ackground job terminates.)220.18 398.4 Q -.4(Wi)97 414
+S .956(th the adv).4 F .956(ent of more po)-.15 F .956
+(werful terminals and terminal emulators, more sophisticated interaction)-.25 F
+.253(than that pro)72 426 R .253(vided by the)-.15 F F3(UNIX)2.753 E F0 -.1(ke)
+2.754 G .254(rnel terminal dri).1 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.754(ri).15 G 2.754(sp)
+293.592 426 S 2.754(ossible. Some)305.236 426 R .254(shells of)2.754 F .254
+(fer command line editing,)-.25 F 1.141
+(which permits a user to edit lines of input using f)72 438 R(amiliar)-.1 E F1
+(emacs)3.64 E F0(or)3.64 E F1(vi)3.64 E F0 1.14
+(-style commands before submitting)B .02(them to the shell.)72 450 R .02
+(Editors allo)5.02 F 2.52(wc)-.25 G .02(orrections to be made without ha)206.31
+450 R .021(ving to erase back to the point of error)-.2 F 2.521(,o)-.4 G(r)
+500.67 450 Q .135(start the line ane)72 462 R 3.935 -.65(w. C)-.25 H .135
+(ommand line editors run the g).65 F .135(amut from a small \214x)-.05 F .134
+(ed set of commands and k)-.15 F .434 -.15(ey b)-.1 H(ind-).15 E
+(ings to input f)72 474 Q(acilities which allo)-.1 E 2.5(wa)-.25 G
+(rbitrary actions to be bound to a k)217.2 474 Q .3 -.15(ey o)-.1 H 2.5(rk).15
+G .3 -.15(ey s)379.88 474 T(equence.).15 E .145(Modern shells also k)97 489.6 R
+.145(eep a history)-.1 F 2.645(,w)-.65 G .146
+(hich is the list of commands a user has typed.)243.49 489.6 R .146(Shell f)
+5.146 F .146(acilities are)-.1 F -.2(av)72 501.6 S .368(ailable to recall pre)
+-.05 F .367(vious commands and use portions of old commands when composing ne)
+-.25 F 2.867(wo)-.25 G 2.867(nes. The)467.253 501.6 R 1.456
+(command history can be sa)72 513.6 R -.15(ve)-.2 G 3.957(dt).15 G 3.957
+(oa\214)207.522 513.6 S 1.457
+(le and read back in at shell startup, so it persists across sessions.)230.436
+513.6 R .675(Shells which pro)72 525.6 R .675
+(vide both command editing and history generally ha)-.15 F .974 -.15(ve e)-.2 H
+.674(diting commands to interacti).15 F -.15(ve)-.25 G(ly).15 E(step forw)72
+537.6 Q(ard and backw)-.1 E(ard through the history list.)-.1 E .013
+(Aliases allo)97 553.2 R -5.012 2.513(wa s)-.25 H .014
+(tring to be substituted for a command name.)164.28 553.2 R(The)5.014 E 2.514
+(yc)-.15 G .014(an be used to create a mnemonic)373.396 553.2 R .568(for a)72
+565.2 R F3(UNIX)3.068 E F0 .568(command name \()3.068 F/F4 10/Courier@0 SF .568
+(alias del=rm)B F0 .568(\), to e)B .567(xpand a single w)-.15 F .567
+(ord to a comple)-.1 F 3.067(xc)-.15 G .567(ommand \()432.603 565.2 R F4(alias)
+A .255(news='xterm -g 80x45 -title trn -e trn -e -S1 -N &')72 577.2 R F0 .255
+(\), or to ensure that a command)B(is in)72 589.2 Q -.2(vo)-.4 G -.1(ke).2 G
+2.5(dw).1 G(ith a basic set of options \()122.41 589.2 Q F4
+(alias ls="/bin/ls -F")A F0(\).)A F2 2.5(3. The)72 613.2 R
+(POSIX Shell Standard)2.5 E F1(POSIX)97 628.8 Q F0 .239
+(is a name originally coined by Richard Stallman for a f)4.405 F .239
+(amily of open system standards based)-.1 F(on)72 640.8 Q F3(UNIX)3.239 E F0
+5.739(.T)C .74(here are a number of aspects of)122.079 640.8 R F3(UNIX)3.24 E
+F0 .74(under consideration for standardization, from the basic)3.24 F .192
+(system services at the system call and C library le)72 652.8 R -.15(ve)-.25 G
+2.692(lt).15 G 2.692(oa)290.16 652.8 S .191
+(pplications and tools to system administration and)302.292 652.8 R 2.5
+(management. Each)72 664.8 R(area of standardization is assigned to a w)2.5 E
+(orking group in the 1003 series.)-.1 E 3.602(The POSIX Shell and T)97 680.4 R
+3.602(ools standard has been de)-.8 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.603(loped by IEEE W).15
+F 3.603(orking Group 1003.2)-.8 F -1.667(\(POSIX.2\) [4].)72 692.4 R 2.799
+(It concentrates on the command interpreter interf)7.799 F 2.799
+(ace and utility programs commonly)-.1 F -.15(exe)72 704.4 S 2.345
+(cuted from the command line or by other programs.).15 F 2.345(An initial v)
+7.345 F 2.345(ersion of the standard has been)-.15 F(appro)72 716.4 Q -.15(ve)
+-.15 G 2.915(da).15 G .414(nd published by the IEEE, and w)116.265 716.4 R .414
+(ork is currently underw)-.1 F .414(ay to update it.)-.1 F .414
+(There are four primary)5.414 F(areas of w)72 728.4 Q
+(ork in the 1003.2 standard:)-.1 E EP
+%%Page: 4 4
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-4-)279.67 48 S 21.5<8341>72 84 S .835
+(spects of the shell')104.22 84 R 3.335(ss)-.55 G .835
+(yntax and command language.)192 84 R 3.335(An)5.835 G .835(umber of special b)
+338.095 84 R .835(uiltins such as)-.2 F/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF(cd)3.335 E F0
+(and)3.335 E F1(exec)97 96 Q F0 .545(are being speci\214ed as part of the shel\
+l, since their functionality usually cannot be implemented)3.046 F
+(by a separate e)97 108 Q -.15(xe)-.15 G(cutable;).15 E 21.5<8341>72 123.6 S
+.73(set of utilities to be called by shell scripts and applications.)107.45
+123.6 R .731(Examples are programs lik)5.731 F(e)-.1 E/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF
+2.397(sed, tr)3.231 F(,)-1.11 E F0(and)97 135.6 Q F2(awk.)2.853 E F0 .352
+(Utilities commonly implemented as shell b)4.519 F .352
+(uiltins are described in this section, such as)-.2 F F1(test)2.852 E F0(and)97
+147.6 Q F1(kill)3.422 E F0 5.922(.A)C 3.422(ne)144.404 147.6 S .922
+(xpansion of this section')157.116 147.6 R 3.423(ss)-.55 G .923
+(cope, termed the User Portability Extension, or UPE, has)268.586 147.6 R
+(standardized interacti)97 159.6 Q .3 -.15(ve p)-.25 H(rograms such as).15 E F2
+(vi)2.5 E F0(and)4.166 E F2(mailx;)2.5 E F0 21.5<8341>72 175.2 S .926
+(group of functional interf)107.646 175.2 R .926(aces to services pro)-.1 F
+.926(vided by the shell, such as the traditional)-.15 F F2(system)3.425 E F0(C)
+5.091 E .507(library function.)97 187.2 R .507
+(There are functions to perform shell w)5.507 F .508(ord e)-.1 F .508
+(xpansions, perform \214lename e)-.15 F(xpansion)-.15 E(\()97 199.2 Q F2
+(globbing)A F0 .58(\), obtain v)B .58
+(alues of POSIX.2 system con\214guration v)-.25 F .58(ariables, retrie)-.25 F
+.88 -.15(ve v)-.25 H .58(alues of en)-.1 F(vironment)-.4 E -.25(va)97 211.2 S
+(riables \().25 E F2 -.1(ge)C(ten).1 E(v\(\))-.4 E F0(\), and other services;)
+.833 E 21.5<8341>72 226.8 S(suite of `)106.72 226.8 Q(`de)-.74 E -.15(ve)-.25 G
+(lopment').15 E 2.5('u)-.74 G(tilities such as)209.54 226.8 Q F2(c89)2.5 E F0
+(\(the POSIX.2 v)4.166 E(ersion of)-.15 E F2(cc)2.5 E F0(\), and)A F2(yacc.)2.5
+E F0 .483(Bash is concerned with the aspects of the shell')97 242.4 R 2.983(sb)
+-.55 G(eha)301.597 242.4 Q .484(vior de\214ned by POSIX.2.)-.2 F .484
+(The shell command)5.484 F 1.439
+(language has of course been standardized, including the basic \215o)72 254.4 R
+3.938(wc)-.25 G 1.438(ontrol and program e)359.688 254.4 R -.15(xe)-.15 G 1.438
+(cution con-).15 F 1.145(structs, I/O redirection and pipelining, ar)72 266.4 R
+1.145(gument handling, v)-.18 F 1.145(ariable e)-.25 F 1.146
+(xpansion, and quoting.)-.15 F(The)6.146 E F2(special)3.646 E F0 -.2(bu)72
+278.4 S .676(iltins, which must be implemented as part of the shell to pro).2 F
+.676(vide the desired functionality)-.15 F 3.176(,a)-.65 G .676(re speci\214ed)
+457.504 278.4 R .7(as being part of the shell; e)72 290.4 R .7
+(xamples of these are)-.15 F F1 -2.3 -.15(ev a)3.201 H(l).15 E F0(and)3.201 E
+F1(export)3.201 E F0 5.701(.O)C .701(ther utilities appear in the sections of)
+352.034 290.4 R .256(POSIX.2 not de)72 302.4 R -.2(vo)-.25 G .256(ted to the s\
+hell which are commonly \(and in some cases must be\) implemented as b).2 F
+(uiltin)-.2 E(commands, such as)72 314.4 Q F1 -.18(re)2.5 G(ad).18 E F0(and)2.5
+E F1(test)2.5 E F0(.)A .972(POSIX.2 also speci\214es aspects of the shell')97
+330 R 3.473(si)-.55 G(nteracti)286.016 330 Q 1.273 -.15(ve b)-.25 H(eha).15 E
+.973(vior as part of the UPE, including job)-.2 F .233
+(control, command line editing, and history)72 342 R 5.233(.I)-.65 G .233
+(nterestingly enough, only)253.849 342 R F2(vi)2.733 E F0 .233
+(-style line editing commands ha)B -.15(ve)-.2 G(been standardized;)72 354 Q F2
+(emacs)2.5 E F0(editing commands were left out due to objections.)2.5 E .148
+(There were certain areas in which POSIX.2 felt standardization w)97 369.6 R
+.149(as necessary)-.1 F 2.649(,b)-.65 G .149(ut no e)420.643 369.6 R .149
+(xisting imple-)-.15 F 1.598(mentation pro)72 381.6 R 1.598
+(vided the proper beha)-.15 F(vior)-.2 E 6.598(.T)-.55 G 1.598(he w)251.56
+381.6 R 1.597(orking group in)-.1 F -.15(ve)-.4 G 1.597
+(nted and standardized functionality in).15 F .228(these areas.)72 393.6 R(The)
+5.228 E F1(command)2.728 E F0 -.2(bu)2.728 G .228(iltin w).2 F .228(as in)-.1 F
+-.15(ve)-.4 G .228(nted so that shell functions could be written to replace b)
+.15 F(uiltins;)-.2 E 1.663(it mak)72 405.6 R 1.663
+(es the capabilities of the b)-.1 F 1.663(uiltin a)-.2 F -.25(va)-.2 G 1.663
+(ilable to the function.).25 F 1.663(The reserv)6.663 F 1.663(ed w)-.15 F 1.663
+(ord `)-.1 F(`!')-.74 E 4.163('w)-.74 G 1.663(as added to)455.685 405.6 R(ne)72
+417.6 Q -.05(ga)-.15 G .915(te the return v).05 F .915
+(alue of a command or pipeline; it w)-.25 F .916(as nearly impossible to e)-.1
+F .916(xpress `)-.15 F .916(`if not x')-.74 F 3.416('c)-.74 G(leanly)479.56
+417.6 Q .904(using the sh language.)72 429.6 R .904(There e)5.904 F .904
+(xist multiple incompatible implementations of the)-.15 F F1(test)3.403 E F0
+-.2(bu)3.403 G .903(iltin, which tests).2 F .28
+(\214les for type and other attrib)72 441.6 R .281
+(utes and performs arithmetic and string comparisons.)-.2 F .281
+(POSIX considered none)5.281 F .868(of these correct, so the standard beha)72
+453.6 R .868(vior w)-.2 F .868(as speci\214ed in terms of the number of ar)-.1
+F .867(guments to the com-)-.18 F 3.803(mand. POSIX.2)72 465.6 R 1.303
+(dictates e)3.803 F 1.303(xactly what will happen when four or fe)-.15 F 1.303
+(wer ar)-.25 F 1.303(guments are gi)-.18 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.803(nt).15 G(o)
+459.462 465.6 Q F1(test)3.804 E F0 3.804(,a)C(nd)494 465.6 Q(lea)72 477.6 Q
+-.15(ve)-.2 G 4.531(st).15 G 2.031(he beha)103.951 477.6 R 2.031
+(vior unde\214ned when more ar)-.2 F 2.031(guments are supplied.)-.18 F 2.03
+(Bash uses the POSIX.2 algorithm,)7.031 F(which w)72 489.6 Q(as concei)-.1 E
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 2.5(db).15 G 2.5(yD)164.53 489.6 S -.2(av)179.25 489.6 S(id K).2
+E(orn.)-.35 E 1.128
+(While POSIX.2 includes much of what the shell has traditionally pro)97 505.2 R
+1.129(vided, some important things)-.15 F(ha)72 517.2 Q .58 -.15(ve b)-.2 H .28
+(een omitted as being `).15 F(`be)-.74 E .28(yond its scope.)-.15 F 4.26 -.74
+('' T)-.7 H .28(here is, for instance, no mention of a dif).74 F .28
+(ference between)-.25 F(a)72 529.2 Q F2(lo)3.354 E(gin)-.1 E F0 .854
+(shell and an)5.02 F 3.354(yo)-.15 G .854(ther interacti)167.956 529.2 R 1.154
+-.15(ve s)-.25 H .854(hell \(since POSIX.2 does not specify a login program\).)
+.15 F .855(No \214x)5.855 F(ed)-.15 E
+(startup \214les are de\214ned, either \255 the standard does not mention)72
+541.2 Q F2(.pr)2.5 E(o\214le)-.45 E F0(.)1.666 E F1 2.5(4. Shell)72 565.2 R
+(Comparison)2.5 E F0 .693(This section compares features of bash, sh, and ksh \
+\(the three shells closest to POSIX compliance\).)97 580.8 R .245(Since ksh an\
+d bash are supersets of sh, the features common to all three are co)72 592.8 R
+-.15(ve)-.15 G .245(red \214rst.).15 F .245(Some of the fea-)5.245 F 1.198
+(tures bash and ksh contain which are not in sh will be discussed.)72 604.8 R
+(Ne)6.198 E 1.198(xt, features unique to bash will be)-.15 F 2.866(listed. The)
+72 616.8 R .366(\214rst three sections pro)2.866 F .366(vide a progressi)-.15 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .366(ly more detailed o).15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G(rvie).15 E 2.866
+(wo)-.25 G 2.866(fb)395.706 616.8 S 2.866(ash. Finally)406.902 616.8 R 2.866
+(,f)-.65 G .366(eatures of)464.484 616.8 R(ksh-88 \(the currently-a)72 628.8 Q
+-.25(va)-.2 G(ilable v).25 E(ersion\) not in sh or bash will be presented.)-.15
+E F1 2.5(4.1. Common)72 652.8 R -.25(Fe)2.5 G(atur).25 E(es)-.18 E F0 .021
+(All three shells ha)97 668.4 R .321 -.15(ve t)-.2 H .021
+(he same basic feature set, which is essentially that pro).15 F .02
+(vided by sh and described)-.15 F 1.026(in an)72 680.4 R 3.526(ys)-.15 G 3.526
+(hm)105.012 680.4 S 1.027
+(anual page. Bash and ksh are both sh supersets, and so all three pro)121.318
+680.4 R 1.027(vide the command inter)-.15 F(-)-.2 E .714
+(preter and programming language described earlier)72 692.4 R 3.214(.T)-.55 G
+.714(he shell grammar)291.506 692.4 R 3.214(,s)-.4 G .714(yntax, \215o)371.568
+692.4 R 3.214(wc)-.25 G .714(ontrol, redirections,)424.686 692.4 R(and b)72
+704.4 Q(uiltins implemented by the Bourne shell are the baseline for subsequen\
+t discussion.)-.2 E EP
+%%Page: 5 5
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-5-)279.67 48 S/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(4.2. F)72
+84 R(eatur)-.25 E(es in bash and ksh)-.18 E F0 .458(Ksh and bash ha)97 99.6 R
+.758 -.15(ve s)-.2 H -2.15 -.25(ev e).15 H .459(ral features in common be).25 F
+.459(yond this base le)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.959(lo).15 G 2.959(ff)387.814
+99.6 S(unctionality)397.433 99.6 Q 5.459(.S)-.65 G .459(ome of this)458.082
+99.6 R(is due to the POSIX.2 standard.)72 111.6 Q(Other functions ha)5 E .3
+-.15(ve b)-.2 H(een implemented in bash using ksh as a guide.).15 E F1 2.5
+(4.2.1. V)72 135.6 R(ariables and V)-.92 E(ariable Expansion)-.92 E F0 .097
+(Bash and ksh ha)97 151.2 R .396 -.15(ve a)-.2 H .096(ugmented v).15 F .096
+(ariable e)-.25 F 2.596(xpansion. Arithmetic)-.15 F .096(substitution allo)
+2.596 F .096(ws an e)-.25 F .096(xpression to be)-.15 F -.25(eva)72 163.2 S .6
+(luated and the result substituted.).25 F .6(Shell v)5.6 F .6
+(ariables may be used as operands, and the result of an e)-.25 F(xpres-)-.15 E
+.41(sion may be assigned to a v)72 175.2 R 2.91(ariable. Nearly)-.25 F .41
+(all of the operators from the C language are a)2.91 F -.25(va)-.2 G .41
+(ilable, with the).25 F(same precedence rules:)72 187.2 Q/F2 10/Courier@0 SF 6
+($e)97 205.2 S(cho $\(\(3 + 5 * 32\)\))115 205.2 Q(163)97 217.2 Q F0 -1.11(Va)
+72 238.8 S 1.445(riables may be declared as)1.11 F/F3 10/Times-Italic@0 SF
+(inte)3.945 E -.1(ge)-.4 G(r).1 E F0 3.945(,w)1.666 G 1.446
+(hich causes arithmetic e)240.956 238.8 R -.25(va)-.25 G 1.446
+(luation to be performed on the v).25 F(alue)-.25 E(whene)72 250.8 Q -.15(ve)
+-.25 G 2.5(rt).15 G(he)115.75 250.8 Q 2.5(ya)-.15 G(re assigned to.)136.98
+250.8 Q .483(There are ne)97 266.4 R 2.983(we)-.25 G .483
+(xpansions to obtain the length of a v)162.179 266.4 R(ariable')-.25 E 2.982
+(sv)-.55 G .482(alue and to remo)352.19 266.4 R .782 -.15(ve s)-.15 H .482
+(ubstrings match-).15 F .063(ing speci\214ed patterns from the be)72 278.4 R
+.063(ginning and end of v)-.15 F .063(ariable v)-.25 F 2.563(alues. A)-.25 F
+(ne)2.563 E 2.563(wf)-.25 G .064(orm of command substitution,)383.249 278.4 R
+F1($\()72 290.4 Q F3(list)A F1(\))A F0 2.5(,i)C 2.5(sm)103.67 290.4 S
+(uch easier to nest than `)117.84 290.4 Q F3(list)A F0 2.5(`a)C
+(nd has simpli\214ed quoting rules.)235.04 290.4 Q .082(There are ne)97 306 R
+2.582(wv)-.25 G .082(ariables to control the shell')161.436 306 R 2.581(sb)-.55
+G(eha)284.333 306 Q(vior)-.2 E 2.581(,a)-.4 G .081(nd additional v)323.244 306
+R .081(ariables set or interpreted spe-)-.25 F 1.038(cially by the shell.)72
+318 R F1(RANDOM)6.038 E F0(and)3.538 E F1(SECONDS)3.538 E F0(are)3.539 E F3
+(dynamic)3.539 E F0 -.25(va)3.539 G 3.539(riables: their).25 F -.25(va)3.539 G
+1.039(lues are generated afresh).25 F 1.022(each time the)72 330 R 3.522(ya)
+-.15 G 1.022(re referenced.)140.176 330 R F1(RANDOM)6.022 E F0 1.021
+(returns a dif)3.521 F 1.021(ferent random number each time it is referenced,)
+-.25 F(and)72 342 Q F1(SECONDS)3.138 E F0 .638
+(returns the number of seconds since the shell w)3.138 F .638
+(as started or the v)-.1 F .639(ariable w)-.25 F .639(as assigned to,)-.1 F
+1.448(plus an)72 354 R 3.948(yv)-.15 G 1.448(alue assigned.)115.606 354 R F1
+(PWD)6.448 E F0(and)3.948 E F1(OLDPWD)3.947 E F0 1.447
+(are set to the current and pre)3.947 F 1.447(vious w)-.25 F 1.447
+(orking directories,)-.1 F(respecti)72 366 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G(ly).15 E(.)-.65 E
+F1(TMOUT)5.604 E F0 .604(controls ho)3.104 F 3.104(wl)-.25 G .604
+(ong the shell will w)226.436 366 R .604(ait at a prompt for input.)-.1 F(If)
+5.604 E F1(TMOUT)3.104 E F0 .605(is set to a)3.105 F -.25(va)72 378 S 1.168
+(lue greater than zero, the shell e).25 F 1.168(xits after w)-.15 F 1.168
+(aiting that man)-.1 F 3.668(ys)-.15 G 1.167(econds for input.)337.478 378 R F1
+(REPL)6.167 E(Y)-.92 E F0 1.167(is the def)3.667 F(ault)-.1 E -.25(va)72 390 S
+.991(riable for the).25 F F1 -.18(re)3.491 G(ad).18 E F0 -.2(bu)3.491 G .991
+(iltin; if no v).2 F .992(ariable names are supplied as ar)-.25 F .992
+(guments, the line read is assigned to)-.18 F F1(REPL)72 402 Q(Y)-.92 E F0(.)A
+F1 2.5(4.2.2. New)72 426 R(and Modi\214ed Builtins)2.5 E F0 .652(Both shells e)
+97 441.6 R .651(xpand the basic sh set of b)-.15 F .651(uiltin commands.)-.2 F
+F1(Let)5.651 E F0(pro)3.151 E .651(vides a w)-.15 F .651
+(ay to perform arithmetic)-.1 F 2.767(on shell v)72 453.6 R 5.268
+(ariables. Shell)-.25 F 2.768(programmers use)5.268 F F1(typeset)5.268 E F0
+2.768(\(bash includes)5.268 F F1(declar)5.268 E(e)-.18 E F0 2.768(as a synon)
+5.268 F 2.768(ym\) to assign)-.15 F(attrib)72 465.6 Q .295(utes such as)-.2 F
+F3 -.2(ex)2.795 G(port).2 E F0(and)4.461 E F3 -.37(re)2.795 G(adonly).37 E F0
+.295(to v)4.461 F(ariables.)-.25 E F1(Getopts)5.295 E F0 .294
+(is used by shell scripts to parse script options)2.795 F .962(and ar)72 477.6
+R 3.462(guments. The)-.18 F F1(set)3.462 E F0 .962(command has a ne)3.462 F
+3.462(wo)-.25 G(ption)266.446 477.6 Q F1<ad6f>3.463 E F0 .963(which tak)3.463 F
+.963(es option names as ar)-.1 F 3.463(guments. Option)-.18 F 1.28
+(names are synon)72 489.6 R 1.28(yms for the other set options \(e.g.,)-.15 F
+F1<ad66>3.78 E F0(and)3.78 E F1 1.28(\255o noglob)3.78 F F0 3.78(\)o)C 3.78(rp)
+375.97 489.6 S(ro)388.08 489.6 Q 1.28(vide ne)-.15 F 3.78(wf)-.25 G 1.28
+(unctionality \()440.78 489.6 R F1(-o)A(notify)72 501.6 Q F0 3.348(,f)C .849
+(or e)106.178 501.6 R 3.349(xample\). The)-.15 F F1 -.18(re)3.349 G(ad).18 E F0
+-.2(bu)3.349 G .849(iltin tak).2 F .849(es a ne)-.1 F(w)-.25 E F1<ad72>3.349 E
+F0 .849(option to specify that a line ending in a backslash)3.349 F
+(should not be continued.)72 513.6 Q F1 2.5(4.2.3. T)72 537.6 R(ilde Expansion)
+-.18 E F0 -.35(Ti)97 553.2 S .252(lde e).35 F .251
+(xpansion is a feature adopted from the C shell.)-.15 F 2.751(At)5.251 G .251
+(ilde character at the be)331.172 553.2 R .251(ginning of a w)-.15 F .251
+(ord is)-.1 F -.15(ex)72 565.2 S(panded to either).15 E F1($HOME)2.5 E F0
+(or the home directory of another user)2.5 E 2.5(,d)-.4 G
+(epending on what follo)345.84 565.2 Q(ws the tilde.)-.25 E F1 2.5
+(4.2.4. Interacti)72 589.2 R .2 -.1(ve I)-.1 H(mpr).1 E -.1(ove)-.18 G(ments).1
+E F0 .789(The most noticable impro)97 604.8 R -.15(ve)-.15 G .789(ments o).15 F
+-.15(ve)-.15 G 3.289(rs).15 G 3.289(ha)263.385 604.8 S .789
+(re geared for interacti)276.114 604.8 R 1.089 -.15(ve u)-.25 H 3.29(se. Ksh)
+.15 F .79(and bash pro)3.29 F .79(vide job)-.15 F .882(control in a v)72 616.8
+R .882(ery similar f)-.15 F .882
+(ashion, with the same options to enable and disable it \()-.1 F F1 .881
+(set -o monitor)B F0 3.381(\)a)C .881(nd the)478.399 616.8 R(same b)72 628.8 Q
+(uiltin commands to manipulate jobs \()-.2 E F1(jobs/fg/bg/kill/wait)A F0(\).)A
+.866(Command line editing, with emacs and vi-style k)97 644.4 R 1.166 -.15
+(ey b)-.1 H .866(indings, is a).15 F -.25(va)-.2 G .866(ilable in both shells.)
+.25 F .866(The Bash)5.866 F F3 -.37(re)72 656.4 S(adline).37 E F0 1.578
+(library is considerably more sophisticated than the ksh editing library:)5.744
+F 1.577(it allo)6.577 F 1.577(ws arbitrary k)-.25 F -.15(ey)-.1 G 1.867
+(bindings, macros, a per)72 668.4 R 1.868(-user customization \214le \()-.2 F
+F3(~/.inputr)A(c)-.37 E F0 1.868(\), a number of v)B 1.868
+(ariables to further customize)-.25 F(beha)72 680.4 Q(vior)-.2 E 3.538(,a)-.4 G
+1.038(nd a much lar)116.868 680.4 R 1.038
+(ger set of bindable editing commands.)-.18 F 1.037
+(The ksh editing library pro)6.037 F 1.037(vides a small)-.15 F<8c78>72 692.4 Q
+(ed command set and only clumsy macros.)-.15 E .706(Both shells of)97 708 R
+.706(fer access to the command history)-.25 F 5.706(.T)-.65 G .706
+(he in-line editing options ha)307.278 708 R 1.006 -.15(ve d)-.2 H(ef).15 E
+.706(ault k)-.1 F 1.006 -.15(ey b)-.1 H(ind-).15 E .624
+(ings to access the history list.)72 720 R(The)5.624 E F1(fc)3.124 E F0 .624
+(command is pro)3.124 F .624(vided to re-e)-.15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .623(cute pre)
+.15 F .623(vious commands and display)-.25 F EP
+%%Page: 6 6
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-6-)279.67 48 S(the contents of the history list.)
+72 84 Q/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(4.2.5. Miscellaneous)72 108 R
+(Changes and Impr)2.5 E -.1(ov)-.18 G(ments).1 E F0 .707(Other impro)97 123.6 R
+-.15(ve)-.15 G .707(ments include aliases, the).15 F F1(select)3.207 E F0 .708
+(shell language construct, which supports the genera-)3.207 F 1.298
+(tion and presentation of simple menus, and e)72 135.6 R 1.298
+(xtensions to the)-.15 F F1(export)3.798 E F0(and)3.798 E F1 -.18(re)3.798 G
+(adonly).18 E F0 -.2(bu)3.798 G 1.298(iltins which allo).2 F(w)-.25 E -.25(va)
+72 147.6 S .017(riables to be assigned v).25 F .017
+(alues at the same time the attrib)-.25 F .017(utes are set.)-.2 F -.8(Wo)5.018
+G .018(rd splitting has changed:).8 F .018(if tw)5.018 F 2.518(oo)-.1 G(r)
+500.67 147.6 Q .158(more adjacent w)72 159.6 R .157
+(ord splitting characters occur)-.1 F 2.657(,b)-.4 G .157
+(ash and ksh will generate null \214elds; sh mak)264.893 159.6 R .157
+(es runs of mul-)-.1 F .339
+(tiple \214eld separator charactors the same as a single separator)72 171.6 R
+5.339(.B)-.55 G .34(ash and ksh split only the results of e)330.89 171.6 R
+(xpan-)-.15 E(sion, rather than e)72 183.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G(ry w).15 E
+(ord as sh does, closing a long-standing shell security hole.)-.1 E 1.234
+(Shell functions in bash and ksh may ha)97 199.2 R 1.534 -.15(ve l)-.2 H 1.234
+(ocal v).15 F 3.734(ariables. V)-.25 F 1.234(ariables declared with)-1.11 F F1
+(typeset)3.734 E F0 1.234(\(or the)3.734 F .001(bash synon)72 211.2 R(ym,)-.15
+E F1(local)2.501 E F0 .001(\), ha)B .301 -.15(ve a s)-.2 H .001
+(cope restricted to the function and its descendents, and may shado).15 F 2.502
+(wv)-.25 G(ariables)472.9 211.2 Q(de\214ned by the in)72 223.2 Q -.2(vo)-.4 G
+(king shell.).2 E(Local v)5 E(ariables are remo)-.25 E -.15(ve)-.15 G 2.5(dw)
+.15 G(hen a function completes.)317.75 223.2 Q F1 2.5(4.3. F)72 247.2 R(eatur)
+-.25 E(es Unique to bash)-.18 E F0(Naturally)97 262.8 Q 2.895(,b)-.65 G .395
+(ash includes features not in sh or ksh.)144.515 262.8 R .395
+(This section discusses some of the features which)5.395 F(mak)72 274.8 Q 2.986
+(eb)-.1 G .486(ash unique.)101.546 274.8 R .486(Most of them pro)5.486 F .486
+(vide impro)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 2.986(di).15 G(nteracti)288.098 274.8 Q .787
+-.15(ve u)-.25 H .487(se, b).15 F .487(ut a fe)-.2 F 2.987(wp)-.25 G .487
+(rogramming impro)394.653 274.8 R -.15(ve)-.15 G(ments).15 E
+(are present as well.)72 286.8 Q
+(Full descriptions of these features can be found in the bash documentation.)5
+E F1 2.5(4.3.1. Startup)72 310.8 R(Files)2.5 E F0 .281(Bash e)97 326.4 R -.15
+(xe)-.15 G .281(cutes startup \214les dif).15 F .281
+(ferently than other shells.)-.25 F .281(The bash beha)5.281 F .28
+(vior is a compromise between)-.2 F .116
+(the csh principle of startup \214les with \214x)72 338.4 R .116(ed names e)
+-.15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .116(cuted for each shell and the sh `).15 F
+(`minimalist')-.74 E 2.616('b)-.74 G(eha)472.26 338.4 Q(vior)-.2 E(.)-.55 E
+2.956(An interacti)72 350.4 R 3.256 -.15(ve i)-.25 H 2.956
+(nstance of bash started as a login shell reads and e).15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G
+(cutes).15 E/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(~/.bash_pr)5.455 E(o\214le)-.45 E F0 2.955
+(\(the \214le)7.121 F F2(.bash_pr)72 362.4 Q(o\214le)-.45 E F0 .835
+(in the user')5 F 3.335(sh)-.55 G .835(ome directory\), if it e)187.385 362.4 R
+3.335(xists. An)-.15 F(interacti)3.335 E 1.135 -.15(ve n)-.25 H .835
+(on-login shell reads and e).15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G(cutes).15 E F2(~/.bashr)72
+374.4 Q(c)-.37 E F0 5.538(.A)1.666 G(non-interacti)127.422 374.4 Q .838 -.15
+(ve s)-.25 H .538(hell \(one be).15 F .538(gun to e)-.15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .538
+(cute a shell script, for e).15 F .537(xample\) reads no \214x)-.15 F .537
+(ed startup)-.15 F .139(\214le, b)72 386.4 R .139(ut uses the v)-.2 F .139
+(alue of the v)-.25 F(ariable)-.25 E F1(ENV)2.639 E F0 2.639(,i)C 2.639(fs)
+253.361 386.4 S .139(et, as the name of a startup \214le.)263.22 386.4 R .139
+(The ksh practice of reading)5.139 F F1($ENV)72 398.4 Q F0 .69(for e)3.19 F
+-.15(ve)-.25 G .69(ry shell, with the accompan).15 F .689(ying dif)-.15 F .689
+(\214culty of de\214ning the proper v)-.25 F .689(ariables and functions for)
+-.25 F(interacti)72 410.4 Q .946 -.15(ve a)-.25 H .646(nd non-interacti).15 F
+.946 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .646(hells or ha).15 F .646
+(ving the \214le read only for interacti)-.2 F .946 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .646
+(hells, w).15 F .646(as considered too)-.1 F(comple)72 422.4 Q(x.)-.15 E F1 2.5
+(4.3.2. New)72 446.4 R(Builtin Commands)2.5 E F0 1.119(There are a fe)97 462 R
+3.619(wb)-.25 G 1.118(uiltins which are ne)170.986 462 R 3.618(wo)-.25 G 3.618
+(rh)268.528 462 S -2.25 -.2(av e)280.476 462 T 1.118(been e)3.818 F 1.118
+(xtended in bash.)-.15 F(The)6.118 E F1(enable)3.618 E F0 -.2(bu)3.618 G 1.118
+(iltin allo).2 F(ws)-.25 E -.2(bu)72 474 S .736
+(iltin commands to be turned on and of).2 F 3.236(fa)-.25 G(rbitrarily)250.198
+474 Q 5.736(.T)-.65 G 3.237(ou)298.644 474 S .737(se the v)311.881 474 R .737
+(ersion of)-.15 F F2(ec)3.237 E(ho)-.15 E F0 .737(found in a user')4.903 F
+3.237(ss)-.55 G(earch)482.35 474 Q .013(path rather than the bash b)72 486 R
+(uiltin,)-.2 E/F3 10/Courier@0 SF .013(enable -n echo)2.513 F F0(suf)2.513 E
+2.513(\214ces. The)-.25 F F1(help)2.513 E F0 -.2(bu)2.513 G .013(iltin pro).2 F
+.013(vides quick synopses of)-.15 F 1.382(the shell f)72 498 R 1.382
+(acilities without requiring access to a manual page.)-.1 F F1(Builtin)6.382 E
+F0 1.383(is similar to)3.882 F F1(command)3.883 E F0 1.383(in that it)3.883 F
+.342(bypasses shell functions and directly e)72 510 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .342
+(cutes b).15 F .342(uiltin commands.)-.2 F .342
+(Access to a csh-style stack of directories)5.342 F .072(is pro)72 522 R .073
+(vided via the)-.15 F F1(pushd)2.573 E F0(,)A F1(popd)2.573 E F0 2.573(,a)C(nd)
+211.197 522 Q F1(dirs)2.573 E F0 -.2(bu)2.573 G(iltins.).2 E F1(Pushd)5.073 E
+F0(and)2.573 E F1(popd)2.573 E F0 .073(insert and remo)2.573 F .373 -.15(ve d)
+-.15 H .073(irectories from the).15 F .094(stack, respecti)72 534 R -.15(ve)
+-.25 G(ly).15 E 2.594(,a)-.65 G(nd)154.448 534 Q F1(dirs)2.594 E F0 .094
+(lists the stack contents.The)2.594 F F1(suspend)2.594 E F0 .094
+(command will stop the shell process when)2.594 F 1.329(job control is acti)72
+546 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.829(;m).15 G 1.329(ost other shells do not allo)169.136
+546 R 3.829(wt)-.25 G(hemselv)294.64 546 Q 1.33(es to be stopped lik)-.15 F
+3.83(et)-.1 G(hat.)421.31 546 Q F1 -.74(Ty)6.33 G(pe,).74 E F0 1.33(the bash)
+3.83 F(answer to)72 558 Q F1(which)2.5 E F0(and)2.5 E F1(whence,)2.5 E F0(sho)
+2.5 E(ws what will happen when a w)-.25 E(ord is typed as a command:)-.1 E F3 6
+($t)97 576 S(ype export)115 576 Q(export is a shell builtin)97 588 Q 6($t)97
+600 S(ype -t export)115 600 Q(builtin)97 612 Q 6($t)97 624 S(ype bash)115 624 Q
+(bash is /bin/bash)97 636 Q 6($t)97 648 S(ype cd)115 648 Q(cd is a function)97
+660 Q(cd \(\))97 672 Q({)97 684 Q(builtin cd "$@" && xtitle $HOST: $PWD)121 696
+Q(})97 708 Q EP
+%%Page: 7 7
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-7-)279.67 48 S -1.11(Va)72 84 S .682
+(rious modes tell what a command w)1.11 F .681(ord is \(reserv)-.1 F .681(ed w)
+-.15 F .681(ord, alias, function, b)-.1 F .681(uiltin, or \214le\) or which v)
+-.2 F(er)-.15 E(-)-.2 E 1.15(sion of a command will be e)72 96 R -.15(xe)-.15 G
+1.15(cuted based on a user').15 F 3.65(ss)-.55 G 1.15(earch path.)305.7 96 R
+1.15(Some of this functionality has been)6.15 F
+(adopted by POSIX.2 and folded into the)72 108 Q/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF(command)
+2.5 E F0(utility)2.5 E(.)-.65 E F1 2.5(4.3.3. Editing)72 132 R(and Completion)
+2.5 E F0 .682(One area in which bash shines is command line editing.)97 147.6 R
+.682(Bash uses the)5.682 F/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF -.37(re)3.182 G(adline).37 E
+F0 .682(library to read and)4.848 F .102(edit lines when interacti)72 159.6 R
+-.15(ve)-.25 G 5.102(.R).15 G .103(eadline is a po)191.438 159.6 R .103
+(werful and \215e)-.25 F .103(xible input f)-.15 F .103
+(acility that a user can con\214gure to his)-.1 F 2.506(tastes. It)72 171.6 R
+(allo)2.506 E .006(ws lines to be edited using either emacs or vi commands, wh\
+ere those commands are appropri-)-.25 F 2.994(ate. The)72 183.6 R .494
+(full capability of emacs is not present \255 there is no w)2.994 F .495
+(ay to e)-.1 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .495(cute a named command with M-x,).15 F .222
+(for instance \255 b)72 195.6 R .222(ut the e)-.2 F .222
+(xisting commands are more than adequate.)-.15 F .221
+(The vi mode is compliant with the com-)5.222 F
+(mand line editing standardized by POSIX.2.)72 207.6 Q 1.69
+(Readline is fully customizable.)97 223.2 R 1.691
+(In addition to the basic commands and k)6.69 F 1.991 -.15(ey b)-.1 H 1.691
+(indings, the library).15 F(allo)72 235.2 Q .83
+(ws users to de\214ne additional k)-.25 F 1.13 -.15(ey b)-.1 H .83
+(indings using a startup \214le.).15 F(The)5.83 E F2(inputr)3.329 E(c)-.37 E F0
+.829(\214le, which def)4.995 F .829(aults to the)-.1 F(\214le)72 247.2 Q F2
+(~/.inputr)4.287 E(c)-.37 E F0 4.287(,i)1.666 G 4.287(sr)137.43 247.2 S 1.788(\
+ead each time readline initializes, permitting users to maintain a consistent \
+interf)148.937 247.2 R(ace)-.1 E .547(across a set of programs.)72 259.2 R .546
+(Readline includes an e)5.546 F .546(xtensible interf)-.15 F .546
+(ace, so each program using the library can)-.1 F .23(add its o)72 271.2 R .23
+(wn bindable commands and program-speci\214c k)-.25 F .531 -.15(ey b)-.1 H
+2.731(indings. Bash).15 F .231(uses this f)2.731 F .231
+(acility to add bindings)-.1 F(that perform history e)72 283.2 Q
+(xpansion or shell w)-.15 E(ord e)-.1 E(xpansions on the current input line.)
+-.15 E .707(Readline interprets a number of v)97 298.8 R .706
+(ariables which further tune its beha)-.25 F(vior)-.2 E 5.706(.V)-.55 G .706
+(ariables e)408.432 298.8 R .706(xist to control)-.15 F .157
+(whether or not eight-bit characters are directly read as input or con)72 310.8
+R -.15(ve)-.4 G .158(rted to meta-pre\214x).15 F .158(ed k)-.15 F .458 -.15
+(ey s)-.1 H .158(equences \(a).15 F(meta-pre\214x)72 322.8 Q 1.575(ed k)-.15 F
+1.875 -.15(ey s)-.1 H 1.575
+(equence consists of the character with the eighth bit zeroed, preceded by the)
+.15 F F2(meta-)4.074 E(pr)72 334.8 Q(e\214x)-.37 E F0(character)4.45 E 2.784
+(,u)-.4 G .284(sually escape, which selects an alternate k)145.374 334.8 R -.15
+(ey)-.1 G .285(map\), to decide whether to output characters).15 F .485
+(with the eighth bit set directly or as a meta-pre\214x)72 346.8 R .485(ed k)
+-.15 F .784 -.15(ey s)-.1 H .484(equence, whether or not to wrap to a ne).15 F
+2.984(ws)-.25 G(creen)482.35 346.8 Q .157
+(line when a line being edited is longer than the screen width, the k)72 358.8
+R -.15(ey)-.1 G .158(map to which subsequent k).15 F .458 -.15(ey b)-.1 H
+(indings).15 E .531(should apply)72 370.8 R 3.031(,o)-.65 G 3.031(re)133.802
+370.8 S -.15(ve)144.353 370.8 S 3.031(nw).15 G .531
+(hat happens when readline w)168.894 370.8 R .531(ants to ring the terminal')
+-.1 F 3.03(sb)-.55 G 3.03(ell. All)399.37 370.8 R .53(of these v)3.03 F
+(ariables)-.25 E(can be set in the inputrc \214le.)72 382.8 Q .284
+(The startup \214le understands a set of C preprocessor)97 398.4 R(-lik)-.2 E
+2.785(ec)-.1 G .285(onditional constructs which allo)329.49 398.4 R 2.785(wv)
+-.25 G(ariables)472.9 398.4 Q .12(or k)72 410.4 R .42 -.15(ey b)-.1 H .119(ind\
+ings to be assigned based on the application using readline, the terminal curr\
+ently being used, or).15 F .316(the editing mode.)72 422.4 R .317
+(Users can add program-speci\214c bindings to mak)5.317 F 2.817(et)-.1 G .317
+(heir li)352.808 422.4 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.817(se).15 G 2.817(asier: here)
+396.922 422.4 R .317(are bindings to)2.817 F(edit the v)72 434.4 Q(alue of)-.25
+E F1 -.74(PA)2.5 G(TH)-.21 E F0(and double-quote the current or pre)2.5 E
+(vious w)-.25 E(ord:)-.1 E/F3 10/Courier@0 SF 6(#M)97 452.4 S
+(acros that are convenient for shell interaction)115 452.4 Q($if Bash)97 464.4
+Q 6(#e)97 476.4 S(dit the path)115 476.4 Q
+("\\C-xp": "PATH=${PATH}\\e\\C-e\\C-a\\ef\\C-f")97 488.4 Q 6(#p)97 500.4 S
+(repare to type a quoted word -- insert open and close double quotes)115 500.4
+Q 6(#a)97 512.4 S(nd move to just after the open quote)115 512.4 Q
+("\\C-x\\"": "\\"\\"\\C-b")97 524.4 Q 6(#Q)97 536.4 S
+(uote the current or previous word)115 536.4 Q("\\C-xq": "\\eb\\"\\ef\\"")97
+548.4 Q($endif)97 560.4 Q F0 .322(There is a readline command to re-read the \
+\214le, so users can edit the \214le, change some bindings, and be)72 582 R
+(gin)-.15 E(to use them almost immediately)72 594 Q(.)-.65 E .851
+(Bash implements the)97 609.6 R F1(bind)3.351 E F0 -.2(bu)3.351 G .851
+(iltin for more dyamic control of readline than the startup \214le permits.).2
+F F1(Bind)72 621.6 Q F0 .167(is used in se)2.667 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .167(ral w)
+.15 F 2.667(ays. In)-.1 F F2(list)2.667 E F0 .167
+(mode, it can display the current k)4.333 F .466 -.15(ey b)-.1 H .166
+(indings, list all the readline edit-).15 F .149(ing directi)72 633.6 R -.15
+(ve)-.25 G 2.649(sa).15 G -.25(va)132.798 633.6 S .149
+(ilable for binding, list which k).25 F -.15(ey)-.1 G 2.649(si).15 G -1.9 -.4
+(nv o)282.352 633.6 T .349 -.1(ke a g).4 H -2.15 -.25(iv e).1 H 2.65(nd).25 G
+(irecti)345.3 633.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.65(,o).15 G 2.65(ro)385.04 633.6 S .15
+(utput the current set of k)396.02 633.6 R -.15(ey)-.1 G .526(bindings in a fo\
+rmat that can be incorporated directly into an inputrc \214le.)72 645.6 R(In)
+5.526 E F2(batc)3.026 E(h)-.15 E F0 .526(mode, it reads a series)4.692 F .71
+(of k)72 657.6 R 1.01 -.15(ey b)-.1 H .71
+(indings directly from a \214le and passes them to readline.).15 F .71
+(In its most common usage,)5.71 F F1(bind)3.21 E F0(tak)3.21 E .71(es a)-.1 F
+.534(single string and passes it directly to readline, which interprets the li\
+ne as if it had just been read from the)72 669.6 R(inputrc \214le.)72 681.6 Q
+(Both k)5 E .3 -.15(ey b)-.1 H(indings and v).15 E
+(ariable assignments can appear in the string gi)-.25 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.5(nt)
+.15 G(o)424.4 681.6 Q F1(bind)2.5 E F0(.)A .401(The readline library also pro)
+97 697.2 R .402(vides an interf)-.15 F .402(ace for)-.1 F F2(wor)2.902 E 2.902
+(dc)-.37 G(ompletion)328.546 697.2 Q F0 5.402(.W)C .402(hen the)385.888 697.2 R
+F2(completion)2.902 E F0(character)4.568 E 1.261(\(usually T)72 709.2 R 1.261
+(AB\) is typed, readline looks at the w)-.93 F 1.26
+(ord currently being entered and computes the set of \214le-)-.1 F .523
+(names of which the current w)72 721.2 R .523(ord is a v)-.1 F .523
+(alid pre\214x.)-.25 F .524
+(If there is only one possible completion, the rest of the)5.523 F EP
+%%Page: 8 8
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-8-)279.67 48 S .358
+(characters are inserted directly)72 84 R 2.858(,o)-.65 G .358(therwise the co\
+mmon pre\214x of the set of \214lenames is added to the current)205.232 84 R
+-.1(wo)72 96 S 3.199(rd. A).1 F .699(second T)3.199 F .699(AB character entere\
+d immediately after a non-unique completion causes readline to list)-.93 F
+1.814(the possible completions; there is an option to ha)72 108 R 2.113 -.15
+(ve t)-.2 H 1.813(he list displayed immediately).15 F 6.813(.R)-.65 G 1.813
+(eadline pro)436.517 108 R(vides)-.15 E .482
+(hooks so that applications can pro)72 120 R .482
+(vide speci\214c types of completion before the def)-.15 F .483
+(ault \214lename completion)-.1 F .132(is attempted.)72 132 R .132
+(This is quite \215e)5.132 F .132(xible, though it is not completely user)-.15
+F 2.632(-programmable. Bash,)-.2 F .132(for e)2.632 F .132(xample, can)-.15 F
+.37(complete \214lenames, command names \(including aliases, b)72 144 R .37
+(uiltins, shell reserv)-.2 F .37(ed w)-.15 F .37(ords, shell functions, and)-.1
+F -.15(exe)72 156 S .424(cutables found in the \214le system\), shell v).15 F
+.424(ariables, usernames, and hostnames.)-.25 F .423
+(It uses a set of heuristics)5.424 F(that, while not perfect, is generally qui\
+te good at determining what type of completion to attempt.)72 168 Q/F1 10
+/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5(4.3.4. History)72 192 R F0 .255
+(Access to the list of commands pre)97 207.6 R .255(viously entered \(the)-.25
+F/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF .255(command history)2.755 F F0 2.756(\)i)C 2.756(sp)
+399.236 207.6 S(ro)410.882 207.6 Q .256(vided jointly by bash)-.15 F .095
+(and the readline library)72 219.6 R 5.094(.B)-.65 G .094(ash pro)178.928 219.6
+R .094(vides v)-.15 F .094(ariables \()-.25 F F1(HISTFILE)A F0(,)A F1(HISTSIZE)
+2.594 E F0 2.594(,a)C(nd)382.068 219.6 Q F1(HISTCONTR)2.594 E(OL)-.3 E F0 2.594
+(\)a)C .094(nd the)479.186 219.6 R F1(history)72 231.6 Q F0(and)2.825 E F1(fc)
+2.825 E F0 -.2(bu)2.825 G .325(iltins to manipulate the history list.).2 F .325
+(The v)5.325 F .325(alue of)-.25 F F1(HISTFILE)2.825 E F0 .326
+(specifes the \214le where bash)2.826 F .128(writes the command history on e)72
+243.6 R .128(xit and reads it on startup.)-.15 F F1(HISTSIZE)5.128 E F0 .128
+(is used to limit the number of com-)2.628 F .346(mands sa)72 255.6 R -.15(ve)
+-.2 G 2.846(di).15 G 2.846(nt)129.002 255.6 S .346(he history)139.628 255.6 R
+(.)-.65 E F1(HISTCONTR)5.346 E(OL)-.3 E F0(pro)2.846 E .346
+(vides a crude form of control o)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 2.846(rw).15 G .346
+(hich commands are)425.548 255.6 R(sa)72 267.6 Q -.15(ve)-.2 G 2.905(do).15 G
+2.905(nt)102.325 267.6 S .405(he history list: a v)113.01 267.6 R .405(alue of)
+-.25 F F2(ignor)2.905 E(espace)-.37 E F0 .405(means to not sa)4.571 F .705 -.15
+(ve c)-.2 H .405(ommands which be).15 F .405(gin with a space; a)-.15 F -.25
+(va)72 279.6 S .339(lue of).25 F F2(ignor)2.839 E(edups)-.37 E F0 .339
+(means to not sa)4.505 F .64 -.15(ve c)-.2 H .34
+(ommands identical to the last command sa).15 F -.15(ve)-.2 G(d.).15 E F1
+(HISTCONTR)5.34 E(OL)-.3 E F0 -.1(wa)72 291.6 S 3.15(sn).1 G(amed)95.6 291.6 Q
+F1(history_contr)3.15 E(ol)-.18 E F0 .65(in earlier v)3.15 F .649
+(ersions of bash; the old name is still accepted for backw)-.15 F .649
+(ards com-)-.1 F(patibility)72 303.6 Q 5.723(.T)-.65 G(he)121.803 303.6 Q F1
+(history)3.223 E F0 .724(command can read or write \214les containing the hist\
+ory list and display the current)3.223 F .895(list contents.)72 315.6 R(The)
+5.895 E F1(fc)3.395 E F0 -.2(bu)3.395 G .895
+(iltin, adopted from POSIX.2 and the K).2 F .894(orn Shell, allo)-.35 F .894
+(ws display and re-e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G(cution,).15 E .461
+(with optional editing, of commands from the history list.)72 327.6 R .462
+(The readline library of)5.462 F .462(fers a set of commands to)-.25 F .657(se\
+arch the history list for a portion of the current input line or a string type\
+d by the user)72 339.6 R 5.657(.F)-.55 G(inally)445.836 339.6 Q 3.157(,t)-.65 G
+(he)476.403 339.6 Q F2(his-)3.157 E(tory)72 351.6 Q F0(library)4.196 E 2.53(,g)
+-.65 G .03(enerally incorporated directly into the readline library)128.346
+351.6 R 2.53(,i)-.65 G .03(mplements a f)350.636 351.6 R .031
+(acility for history recall,)-.1 F -.15(ex)72 363.6 S .594(pansion, and re-e)
+.15 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .594(cution of pre).15 F .594(vious commands v)-.25 F .594
+(ery similar to csh \(`)-.15 F .593(`bang history')-.74 F .593
+(', so called because)-.74 F(the e)72 375.6 Q
+(xclamation point introduces a history substitution\):)-.15 E/F3 10/Courier@0
+SF 6($e)97 393.6 S(cho a b c d e)115 393.6 Q 6(abcde)97 405.6 S 6($!)97 417.6 S
+6(!fghi)115 417.6 S(echo a b c d e f g h i)97 429.6 Q 6(abcdefghi)97 441.6 S 6
+($!)97 453.6 S(-2)115 453.6 Q(echo a b c d e)97 465.6 Q 6(abcde)97 477.6 S 6
+($e)97 489.6 S(cho !-2:1-4)115 489.6 Q(echo a b c d)97 501.6 Q 6(abcd)97 513.6
+S F0 1.456(The command history is only sa)72 535.2 R -.15(ve)-.2 G 3.957(dw).15
+G 1.457(hen the shell is interacti)232.599 535.2 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.957(,s).15
+G 3.957(oi)352.804 535.2 S 3.957(ti)364.541 535.2 S 3.957(sn)374.058 535.2 S
+1.457(ot a)386.905 535.2 R -.25(va)-.2 G 1.457(ilable for use by shell).25 F
+(scripts.)72 547.2 Q F1 2.5(4.3.5. New)72 571.2 R(Shell V)2.5 E(ariables)-.92 E
+F0 .701(There are a number of con)97 586.8 R -.15(ve)-.4 G .701(nience v).15 F
+.701(ariables that bash interprets to mak)-.25 F 3.2(el)-.1 G .7(ife easier)
+402.76 586.8 R 5.7(.T)-.55 G .7(hese include)453.59 586.8 R F1(FIGNORE)72 598.8
+Q F0 3.973(,w)C 1.473(hich is a set of \214lename suf)132.363 598.8 R<8c78>-.25
+E 1.474(es identifying \214les to e)-.15 F 1.474
+(xclude when completing \214lenames;)-.15 F F1(HOSTTYPE)72 610.8 Q F0 3.03(,w)C
+.53(hich is automatically set to a string describing the type of hardw)139.21
+610.8 R .53(are on which bash is cur)-.1 F(-)-.2 E .76(rently e)72 622.8 R -.15
+(xe)-.15 G(cuting;).15 E F1(OSTYPE)3.26 E F0 3.26(,t)C 3.26(ow)191.76 622.8 S
+.76(hich bash assigns a v)207.24 622.8 R .761(alue that identi\214es the v)-.25
+F .761(ersion of)-.15 F/F4 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)3.261 E F0(it')3.261 E 3.261
+(sr)-.55 G(unning)476.22 622.8 Q 1.354
+(on \(great for putting architecture-speci\214c binary directories into the)72
+634.8 R F1 -.74(PA)3.854 G(TH)-.21 E F0 1.354(\); and)B F1(IGNOREEOF)3.854 E F0
+3.854(,w)C(hose)485.67 634.8 Q -.25(va)72 646.8 S .062
+(lue indicates the number of consecuti).25 F .362 -.15(ve E)-.25 H .062
+(OF characters that an interacti).15 F .362 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .062
+(hell will read before e).15 F .062(xiting \255)-.15 F .114(an easy w)72 658.8
+R .113(ay to k)-.1 F .113(eep yourself from being logged out accidentally)-.1 F
+5.113(.T)-.65 G(he)344.285 658.8 Q F1(auto_r)2.613 E(esume)-.18 E F0 -.25(va)
+2.613 G .113(riable alters the w).25 F(ay)-.1 E .409
+(the shell treats simple command names: if job control is acti)72 670.8 R -.15
+(ve)-.25 G 2.909(,a).15 G .409(nd this v)335.516 670.8 R .409
+(ariable is set, single-w)-.25 F .409(ord simple)-.1 F .17(commands without re\
+directions cause the shell to \214rst look for a suspended job with that name \
+before start-)72 682.8 R(ing a ne)72 694.8 Q 2.5(wp)-.25 G(rocess.)118.13 694.8
+Q EP
+%%Page: 9 9
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-9-)279.67 48 S/F1 10/Times-Bold@0 SF 2.5
+(4.3.6. Brace)72 84 R(Expansion)2.5 E F0 .653(Since sh of)97 99.6 R .653
+(fers no con)-.25 F -.15(ve)-.4 G .653(nient w).15 F .653
+(ay to generate arbitrary strings that share a common pre\214x or suf)-.1 F
+<8c78>-.25 E 1.893(\(pathname e)72 111.6 R 1.893
+(xpansion requires that the \214lenames e)-.15 F 1.892(xist\), bash implements)
+-.15 F/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(br)4.392 E 1.892(ace e)-.15 F(xpansion)-.2 E F0
+4.392(,ac)C(apability)469 111.6 Q(pick)72 123.6 Q .496(ed up from csh.)-.1 F
+.496(Brace e)5.496 F .496(xpansion is similar to pathname e)-.15 F .496
+(xpansion, b)-.15 F .497(ut the strings generated need not)-.2 F 1.107
+(correspond to e)72 135.6 R 1.107(xisting \214les.)-.15 F 3.607(Ab)6.107 G
+1.107(race e)207.655 135.6 R 1.107(xpression consists of an optional)-.15 F F2
+(pr)3.606 E(eamble)-.37 E F0 3.606(,f)1.666 G(ollo)419.286 135.6 Q 1.106
+(wed by a pair of)-.25 F 2.809
+(braces enclosing a series of comma-separated strings, and an optional)72 147.6
+R F2(postamble)5.31 E F0 7.81(.T)1.666 G 2.81(he preamble is)440.06 147.6 R(pr\
+epended to each string within the braces, and the postamble is then appended t\
+o each resulting string:)72 159.6 Q/F3 10/Courier@0 SF 6($e)97 177.6 S
+(cho a{d,c,b}e)115 177.6 Q(ade ace abe)97 189.6 Q F1 2.5(4.3.7. Pr)72 219.6 R
+(ompt Customization)-.18 E F0 .077(One of the more popular interacti)97 235.2 R
+.376 -.15(ve f)-.25 H .076(eatures that bash pro).15 F .076
+(vides is the ability to customize the prompt.)-.15 F(Both)72 247.2 Q F1(PS1)
+3.305 E F0(and)3.305 E F1(PS2,)3.305 E F0 .805
+(the primary and secondary prompts, are e)3.305 F .805
+(xpanded before being displayed.)-.15 F -.15(Pa)5.805 G(rameter).15 E .324
+(and v)72 259.2 R .324(ariable e)-.25 F .324
+(xpansion is performed when the prompt string is e)-.15 F .323
+(xpanded, so the v)-.15 F .323(alue of an)-.25 F 2.823(ys)-.15 G .323(hell v)
+454.217 259.2 R(ariable)-.25 E .728(can be put into the prompt \(e.g.,)72 271.2
+R F1($SHL)3.228 E(VL)-.92 E F0 3.228(,w)C .728(hich indicates ho)258.564 271.2
+R 3.228(wd)-.25 G .729(eeply the current shell is nested\).)342.988 271.2 R
+(Bash)5.729 E 1.895
+(specially interprets characters in the prompt string preceded by a backslash.)
+72 283.2 R 1.895(Some of these backslash)6.895 F .874
+(escapes are replaced with the current time, the date, the current w)72 295.2 R
+.874(orking directory)-.1 F 3.374(,t)-.65 G .874(he username, and the)416.958
+295.2 R .781(command number or history number of the command being entered.)72
+307.2 R .78(There is e)5.781 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.28(nab).15 G .78
+(ackslash escape to)429.13 307.2 R .007
+(cause the shell to change its prompt when running as root after an)72 319.2 R
+F2(su)2.507 E F0 5.007(.B)C .008(efore printing each primary prompt,)360.388
+319.2 R .27(bash e)72 331.2 R .27(xpands the v)-.15 F(ariable)-.25 E F1(PR)2.77
+E(OMPT_COMMAND)-.3 E F0 .269(and, if it has a v)2.77 F .269(alue, e)-.25 F -.15
+(xe)-.15 G .269(cutes the e).15 F .269(xpanded v)-.15 F .269(alue as a)-.25 F
+.04(command, allo)72 343.2 R .041(wing additional prompt customization.)-.25 F
+-.15(Fo)5.041 G 2.541(re).15 G .041
+(xample, this assignment causes the current user)311.964 343.2 R(,)-.4 E .99
+(the current host, the time, the last component of the current w)72 355.2 R
+.989(orking directory)-.1 F 3.489(,t)-.65 G .989(he le)402.954 355.2 R -.15(ve)
+-.25 G 3.489(lo).15 G 3.489(fs)443.412 355.2 S .989(hell nesting,)454.121 355.2
+R(and the history number of the current command to be embedded into the primar\
+y prompt:)72 367.2 Q F3 6($P)97 385.2 S
+(S1='\\u@\\h [\\t] \\W\($SHLVL:\\!\)\\$ ')115 385.2 Q
+(chet@odin [21:03:44] documentation\(2:636\)$ cd ..)97 397.2 Q
+(chet@odin [21:03:54] src\(2:637\)$)97 409.2 Q F0 .619
+(The string being assigned is surrounded by single quotes so that if it is e)72
+430.8 R(xported,)-.15 E F1(SHL)3.119 E(VL)-.92 E F0 .619(will be updated)3.119
+F(by a child shell:)72 442.8 Q F3
+(chet@odin [21:13:35] src\(2:638\)$ export PS1)97 460.8 Q
+(chet@odin [21:17:40] src\(2:639\)$ bash)97 472.8 Q
+(chet@odin [21:17:46] src\(3:696\)$)97 484.8 Q F0(The)72 506.4 Q F1(\\$)2.5 E
+F0(escape is displayed as `)2.5 E(`)-.74 E F1($)A F0 1.48 -.74('' w)D
+(hen running as a normal user).74 E 2.5(,b)-.4 G(ut as `)342.08 506.4 Q(`)-.74
+E F1(#)A F0 1.48 -.74('' w)D(hen running as root.).74 E F1 2.5(4.3.8. POSIX)72
+530.4 R(Mode)2.5 E F0 .46(Although bash is intended to be POSIX.2 compliant, t\
+here are areas in which the def)97 546 R .46(ault beha)-.1 F .46(vior is)-.2 F
+1.168(not compatible with the standard.)72 558 R -.15(Fo)6.169 G 3.669(ru).15 G
+1.169(sers who wish to operate in a strict POSIX.2 en)238.85 558 R 1.169
+(vironment, bash)-.4 F .61(implements a)72 570 R F2 .61(POSIX mode)3.11 F F0
+5.61(.W)C .61(hen this mode is acti)199.42 570 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.109(,b).15 G
+.609(ash modi\214es its def)303.727 570 R .609(ault operation where it dif)-.1
+F(fers)-.25 E .066(from POSIX.2 to match the standard.)72 582 R .067
+(POSIX mode is entered when bash is started with the)5.066 F F1 .067(-o posix)
+2.567 F F0(option)2.567 E .382(or when)72 594 R F1 .382(set -o posix)2.882 F F0
+.381(is e)2.881 F -.15(xe)-.15 G 2.881(cuted. F).15 F .381
+(or compatibility with other GNU softw)-.15 F .381
+(are that attempts to be POSIX.2)-.1 F 5.752
+(compliant, bash also enters POSIX mode if either of the v)72 606 R(ariables)
+-.25 E F1(POSIX_PED)8.253 E(ANTIC)-.35 E F0(or)8.253 E F1(POSIXL)72 618 Q
+(Y_CORRECT)-.92 E F0 1.179(is set when bash is started or assigned a v)3.679 F
+1.178(alue during e)-.25 F -.15(xe)-.15 G 3.678(cution. When).15 F 1.178
+(bash is)3.678 F .218(started in POSIX mode, for e)72 630 R .218(xample, the)
+-.15 F F1(kill)2.718 E F0 -.2(bu)2.718 G(iltin').2 E(s)-.55 E F1<ad6c>2.718 E
+F0 .218(option beha)2.718 F -.15(ve)-.2 G 2.718(sd).15 G(if)370.166 630 Q .219
+(ferently: it lists the names of all)-.25 F 1.084(signals on a single line sep\
+arated by spaces, rather than listing the signal names and their corresponding)
+72 642 R(numbers.)72 654 Q .865(Some of the def)97 669.6 R .865(ault bash beha)
+-.1 F .865(vior dif)-.2 F .865
+(fers from other shells as a result of the POSIX standard.)-.25 F -.15(Fo)5.866
+G(r).15 E 1.16(instance, bash includes the)72 681.6 R F1(!)3.66 E F0(reserv)
+6.16 E 1.16(ed w)-.15 F 1.16(ord to ne)-.1 F -.05(ga)-.15 G 1.16
+(te the return status of a pipeline because it has been).05 F
+(de\214ned by POSIX.2.)72 693.6 Q
+(Neither sh nor ksh has implemented that feature.)5 E EP
+%%Page: 10 10
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-1)277.17 48 S 2.5(0-)288 48 S/F1 10/Times-Bold@0
+SF 2.5(4.4. F)72 84 R(eatur)-.25 E(es Unique to ksh)-.18 E F0 .177
+(Ksh includes a number of features not in the currently-released v)97 99.6 R
+.178(ersion of bash, v)-.15 F .178(ersion 1.14.)-.15 F(Unless)5.178 E .822
+(noted, none of these features is in the POSIX.2 standard.)72 111.6 R .821
+(Where appropriate the equi)5.821 F -.25(va)-.25 G .821(lent bash features).25
+F(are noted.)72 123.6 Q F1 2.5(4.4.1. The)72 147.6 R(ksh Language)2.5 E F0
+2.955(An)97 163.2 S .955 -.25(ew c)112.175 163.2 T .455(ompound command folds)
+.25 F F1(test)2.955 E F0 .456(into the ksh language, delimited by the reserv)
+2.955 F .456(ed w)-.15 F(ords)-.1 E F1([[)2.956 E F0(and)2.956 E F1(]])72 175.2
+Q F0 5.726(.T)C .726(he syntax is identical to)92.996 175.2 R F1(test)3.225 E
+F0 .725(with a fe)3.225 F 3.225(wc)-.25 G .725
+(hanges: for instance, instead of)262.855 175.2 R F1<ad61>3.225 E F0(and)3.225
+E F1<ad6f>3.225 E F0(,)A F1(&&)3.225 E F0(and)3.225 E/F2 10/Symbol SF<efef>
+3.225 E F0(are)3.225 E 3.32(used. The)72 187.2 R -.1(wo)3.32 G .82(rds between)
+.1 F F1([[)3.32 E F0(and)3.32 E F1(]])3.32 E F0 .82(are not processed for w)
+3.32 F .82(ord splitting or \214lename generation.)-.1 F .82(The ne)5.82 F(w)
+-.25 E .926
+(command does pattern matching as well as string comparison, a la the)72 199.2
+R F1(case)3.425 E F0 3.425(command. This)3.425 F(ne)3.425 E 3.425(wc)-.25 G
+(ontrol)480.11 199.2 Q .165(structure does ha)72 211.2 R .465 -.15(ve t)-.2 H
+.165(he adv).15 F .166(antage of reducing common ar)-.25 F .166
+(gument problems encountered using test \(e.g.)-.18 F F1(test)2.666 E
+("$string")72 223.2 Q F0 2.928(,w)C(here)125.748 223.2 Q F1($string)2.928 E F0
+-.15(ex)2.928 G .428(pands to).15 F F1<ad66>2.928 E F0 .428(\), b)B .428
+(ut at the cost of bloating the language.)-.2 F .427(The POSIX.2 test algo-)
+5.427 F 2.752(rithm that bash uses, along with some programmer care, alle)72
+235.2 R 2.752(viates those problems in a backw)-.25 F(ards-)-.1 E .854
+(compatible w)72 247.2 R .853(ay with no additions to the language.)-.1 F .853
+(The one capability of)5.853 F F1 .853([[ ]])3.353 F F0 .853(not a)3.353 F -.25
+(va)-.2 G .853(ilable in bash is its).25 F(ability to test whether an indi)72
+259.2 Q(vidual)-.25 E F1(set \255o)2.5 E F0(option is turned on or of)2.5 E(f.)
+-.25 E .339(Other parts of the ksh language are not common to bash.)97 274.8 R
+(The)5.34 E F1(\(\(...\)\))2.84 E F0(operator)5.34 E 2.84(,e)-.4 G(qui)419.33
+274.8 Q -.25(va)-.25 G .34(lent to).25 F F1 .34(let "...")2.84 F F0(,)A .197
+(is unique to ksh, as are the concept of co-processes and the)72 286.8 R F1
+(time)2.697 E F0 -.1(ke)2.696 G(yw)-.05 E .196
+(ord to time commands and pipelines.)-.1 F F1 2.5(4.4.2. Functions)72 310.8 R
+(and Aliases)2.5 E F0 1.022(The K)97 326.4 R 1.022(orn shell has)-.35 F/F3 10
+/Times-Italic@0 SF(autoloaded)3.522 E F0 3.522(functions. A)3.522 F 1.022
+(function mark)3.522 F 1.022(ed as)-.1 F F3(autoload)3.522 E F0 1.022
+(is not de\214ned until it is)5.188 F 1.042(\214rst e)72 338.4 R -.15(xe)-.15 G
+3.542(cuted. When).15 F 1.042(such a function is e)3.542 F -.15(xe)-.15 G 1.042
+(cuted, a search is made through the directories in).15 F F1(FP)3.541 E -.95
+(AT)-.74 G(H).95 E F0(\(a)3.541 E .27
+(colon-separated list of directories similar to)72 350.4 R F1 -.74(PA)2.77 G
+(TH)-.21 E F0 2.77(\)f)C .27(or a \214le with the same name as the function.)
+285.78 350.4 R .27(That \214le)5.27 F .548(is then read in as with the)72 362.4
+R F1(.)3.881 E F0 .547(command; presumably the function is de\214ned therein.)
+3.047 F .547(There is a pair of shell)5.547 F .886
+(functions included in the bash distrib)72 374.4 R .886(ution \()-.2 F F3 -.2
+(ex)C(amples/functions/autoload).2 E F0 5.886(\)t)C .886(hat pro)378.35 374.4 R
+.886(vide much of this func-)-.15 F
+(tionality without changing the shell itself.)72 386.4 Q .116
+(Ksh functions are scoped in such a w)97 402 R .116(ay that the en)-.1 F .116
+(vironment in which the)-.4 F 2.616(ya)-.15 G .116(re e)405.144 402 R -.15(xe)
+-.15 G .115(cuted is closer to a).15 F .827(shell script en)72 414 R 3.327
+(vironment. Bash)-.4 F .827(uses the POSIX.2 scoping rules, which mak)3.327 F
+3.327(et)-.1 G .827(he function e)392.517 414 R -.15(xe)-.15 G .828(cution en)
+.15 F(vi-)-.4 E 1.2(ronment an e)72 426 R 1.2(xact cop)-.15 F 3.7(yo)-.1 G 3.7
+(ft)174.86 426 S 1.199(he shell en)184.67 426 R 1.199
+(vironment with the replacement of the shell')-.4 F 3.699(sp)-.55 G 1.199
+(ositional paramters)426.421 426 R(with the function ar)72 438 Q 2.5
+(guments. K)-.18 F
+(orn shell functions do not share options or traps with the in)-.35 E -.2(vo)
+-.4 G(king shell.).2 E .451(Ksh has)97 453.6 R F3(tr)2.951 E(ac)-.15 E -.1(ke)
+-.2 G(d).1 E F0 .452(aliases, which alias a command name to its full pathname.)
+2.952 F .452(Bash has true command)5.452 F(hashing.)72 465.6 Q F1 2.5
+(4.4.3. Arrays)72 489.6 R F0 .246
+(Arrays are an aspect of ksh that has no real bash equi)97 505.2 R -.25(va)-.25
+G 2.746(lent. The).25 F 2.746(ya)-.15 G .246(re easy to create and manipulate:)
+371.42 505.2 R 1.637
+(an array is created automatically by using subscript assignment \()72 517.2 R
+F1(name)A F0([)A F3(inde)A(x)-.2 E F0(]=)A F1 -.1(va)C(lue).1 E F0 1.637
+(\), and an)B 4.137(yv)-.15 G(ariable)476.79 517.2 Q 1.967
+(may be referred to as an array)72 529.2 R 6.967(.K)-.65 G 1.967(sh arrays, ho)
+219.229 529.2 R(we)-.25 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 2.767 -.4(r, h).15 H -2.25 -.2(av e).4
+H(se)4.667 E -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.967(ral anno).15 F 1.967(ying limitations: the)
+-.1 F 4.466(ym)-.15 G 1.966(ay be)480.654 529.2 R(inde)72 541.2 Q -.15(xe)-.15
+G 3.498(do).15 G .998(nly up to 512 or 1024 elements, depending on ho)111.858
+541.2 R 3.498(wt)-.25 G .999(he shell is compiled, and there is only the)
+330.188 541.2 R(clumsy)72 553.2 Q F1 .223(set -A)2.723 F F0 .223
+(to assign a list of v)2.723 F .223(alues sequentially)-.25 F 5.223(.D)-.65 G
+.223(espite these limits, arrays are useful, if underutilized)293.31 553.2 R
+(by shell programmers.)72 565.2 Q F1 2.5(4.4.4. Builtin)72 589.2 R(Commands)2.5
+E F0 .112(Some of the b)97 604.8 R .112(uiltin commands ha)-.2 F .412 -.15
+(ve b)-.2 H .112(een e).15 F .112(xtended or are ne)-.15 F 2.612(wi)-.25 G
+2.613(nk)351.402 604.8 S 2.613(sh. The)364.015 604.8 R F1(print)2.613 E F0 -.2
+(bu)2.613 G .113(iltin w).2 F .113(as included)-.1 F .242(to w)72 616.8 R .242
+(ork around the incompatibilities and limitations of)-.1 F F1(echo)2.741 E F0
+5.241(.T)C(he)328.234 616.8 Q F1(whence)2.741 E F0 .241(command tells what w)
+2.741 F .241(ould hap-)-.1 F .418(pen if each ar)72 628.8 R .418
+(gument were typed as a command name.)-.18 F(The)5.418 E F1(cd)2.919 E F0 -.2
+(bu)2.919 G .419(iltin has been e).2 F .419(xtended to tak)-.15 F 2.919(eu)-.1
+G 2.919(pt)470.482 628.8 S 2.919(ot)481.181 628.8 S -.1(wo)491.88 628.8 S(ar)72
+640.8 Q 1.425(guments: if tw)-.18 F 3.925(oa)-.1 G -.18(rg)153.485 640.8 S
+1.424(uments are supplied, the second is substituted for the \214rst in the cu\
+rrent directory).18 F 2.294
+(name and the shell changes to the resultant directory name.)72 652.8 R 2.295
+(The ksh)7.294 F F1(trap)4.795 E F0 -.2(bu)4.795 G 2.295(iltin accepts).2 F F1
+(ERR)4.795 E F0(and)4.795 E F1(DEB)72 664.8 Q(UG)-.1 E F0 .15(as trap names.)
+2.65 F(The)5.15 E F1(ERR)2.65 E F0 .15(trap is e)2.65 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .15
+(cuted when a command f).15 F(ails;)-.1 E F1(DEB)2.65 E(UG)-.1 E F0 .15(is e)
+2.65 F -.15(xe)-.15 G .15(cuted after e).15 F -.15(ve)-.25 G(ry).15 E
+(simple command.)72 676.8 Q .05(The bash distrib)97 692.4 R .05
+(ution includes shell functions that implement)-.2 F F1(print)2.55 E F0(and)
+2.55 E F1(whence)2.55 E F0 .05(and the e)2.55 F .05(xtensions to)-.15 F F1(cd)
+72 704.4 Q F0(.)A EP
+%%Page: 11 11
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-1)277.17 48 S 2.5(1-)288 48 S/F1 10/Times-Bold@0
+SF 2.5(4.4.5. Expansion)72 84 R F0 .282(The ksh \214lename generation \()97
+99.6 R/F2 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(globbing)A F0 2.782(\)f)C .282(acilities ha)
+262.45 99.6 R .581 -.15(ve b)-.2 H .281(een e).15 F .281(xtended be)-.15 F .281
+(yond their bash and sh coun-)-.15 F 3.68(terparts. In)72 111.6 R 1.181
+(this area, ksh can be thought of as)3.681 F F2 -.4(eg)3.681 G -.37(re).4 G(p)
+.37 E F0 1.181(to the bash)5.347 F F2(gr)3.681 E(ep)-.37 E F0 6.181(.K)1.666 G
+1.181(sh globbing of)382.406 111.6 R 1.181(fers things lik)-.25 F(e)-.1 E 1.018
+(alternation, the ability to match zero or more instances of a pattern, and th\
+e ability to match e)72 123.6 R 1.018(xactly one)-.15 F(occurrence of an)72
+135.6 Q 2.5(yo)-.15 G 2.5(fal)150.98 135.6 S(ist of patterns.)166.53 135.6 Q F1
+2.5(4.4.6. Startup)72 159.6 R(Files)2.5 E F0 .977(Ksh and bash e)97 175.2 R
+-.15(xe)-.15 G .977(cute startup \214les dif).15 F(ferently)-.25 E 5.977(.K)
+-.65 G .977(sh e)297.879 175.2 R(xpands)-.15 E F1(ENV)3.478 E F0 .978
+(and sources the \214le it names for)3.478 F -2.15 -.25(ev e)72 187.2 T 1.85
+(ry shell.).25 F 1.85(Bash sources)6.85 F F1($ENV)4.35 E F0 1.85
+(only in non-interacti)4.35 F 2.15 -.15(ve s)-.25 H 1.85(hells; interacti).15 F
+2.15 -.15(ve s)-.25 H 1.85(hells source \214x).15 F 1.85(ed \214les, as)-.15 F
+-.15(ex)72 199.2 S 1.285(plained in the pre).15 F 1.285(vious section.)-.25 F
+1.285(The POSIX standard has speci\214ed the ksh beha)6.285 F(vior)-.2 E 3.785
+(,s)-.4 G 3.785(ob)441.545 199.2 S 1.285(ash acts the)455.33 199.2 R
+(same as ksh if started with the)72 211.2 Q F1(\255posix)2.5 E F0(or)2.5 E F1
+(\255o posix)2.5 E F0(options.)2.5 E F1 2.5(4.4.7. History)72 235.2 R F0
+(Finally)97 250.8 Q 3.372(,t)-.65 G .872(he ksh history implementation dif)
+133.342 250.8 R .871(fers slightly from bash.)-.25 F .871
+(Each instance of bash k)5.871 F .871(eeps the)-.1 F .633
+(history list in memory and of)72 262.8 R .633(fers options to the)-.25 F F1
+(history)3.133 E F0 -.2(bu)3.133 G .634
+(iltin to write the list to or read it from a named).2 F 3.216(\214le. Ksh)72
+274.8 R -.1(ke)3.216 G .716
+(eps the history in a \214le, which it accesses each time a command is sa).1 F
+-.15(ve)-.2 G 3.215(dt).15 G 3.215(oo)426.445 274.8 S 3.215(rr)439.66 274.8 S
+(etrie)449.535 274.8 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G 3.215(df).15 G(rom)487.89 274.8 Q .338
+(the history)72 286.8 R 5.338(.K)-.65 G .338
+(sh history \214les may be shared among dif)129.246 286.8 R .338
+(ferent concurrent instances of ksh, which could be a)-.25 F
+(bene\214t to the user)72 298.8 Q(.)-.55 E F1 2.5(5. F)72 322.8 R(eatur)-.25 E
+(es in Bash-2.0)-.18 E F0 .657(The ne)97 338.4 R .657
+(xt release of bash, 2.0, will be a major o)-.15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 3.157
+(rhaul. It).15 F .656(will include man)3.157 F 3.156(yn)-.15 G 1.156 -.25(ew f)
+419.532 338.4 T .656(eatures, for both).25 F .705(programming and interacti)72
+350.4 R 1.005 -.15(ve u)-.25 H 3.205(se. Redundant).15 F -.15(ex)3.205 G .705
+(isting functions will be remo).15 F -.15(ve)-.15 G 3.206(d. There).15 F .706
+(are se)3.206 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .706(ral cases).15 F 1.34(where bash treats a v)
+72 362.4 R 1.34(ariable specially to enable functionality a)-.25 F -.25(va)-.2
+G 1.34(ilable another w).25 F 1.34(ay \()-.1 F F1($nolinks)A F0(vs.)3.84 E F1
+1.34(set -o)3.84 F(ph)72 374.4 Q(ysical)-.15 E F0 2.5(,f)C(or e)115.19 374.4 Q
+(xample\); the special treatment of the v)-.15 E(ariable name will be remo)-.25
+E -.15(ve)-.15 G(d.).15 E F1 2.5(5.1. Arrays)72 398.4 R F0 .546(Bash-2.0 will \
+include arrays which are a superset of those in ksh, with the size limitations\
+ remo)97 414 R -.15(ve)-.15 G(d.).15 E(The)72 426 Q F1(declar)3.086 E(e)-.18 E
+F0(,)A F1 -.18(re)3.086 G(adonly).18 E F0 3.086(,a)C(nd)174.768 426 Q F1
+(export)3.086 E F0 -.2(bu)3.086 G .586
+(iltins will accept options to specify arrays, and the).2 F F1 -.18(re)3.085 G
+(ad).18 E F0 -.2(bu)3.085 G .585(iltin will).2 F(ha)72 438 Q .81 -.15(ve a)-.2
+H 3.01(no).15 G .51(ption to read a list of w)110.99 438 R .51
+(ords and assign them directly to an array)-.1 F 5.51(.T)-.65 G .51
+(here will also be a ne)386.23 438 R 3.01(wa)-.25 G(rray)487.9 438 Q F2 .262
+(compound assignment)72 450 R F0 .262(syntax a)2.762 F -.25(va)-.2 G .262
+(ilable for assignment statements and the).25 F F1(declar)2.761 E(e)-.18 E F0
+-.2(bu)2.761 G 2.761(iltin. This).2 F(ne)2.761 E 2.761(ws)-.25 G(yntax)481.78
+450 Q .441(has the form)72 462 R F2(name)2.941 E F0(=\()A F2(value1)A F0(...)
+2.941 E F2(valueN)2.941 E F0 .441(\), where each)B F2(value)2.942 E F0 .442
+(has the form [)4.608 F F2(subscript)A F0(]=)A F2(string)A F0 5.442(.O)C .442
+(nly the)449.776 462 R F2(string)2.942 E F0 1.395(is required.)72 474 R 1.395
+(If the optional brack)6.395 F 1.395(ets and)-.1 F F2(subscript)3.894 E F0
+1.394(are included, that inde)3.894 F 3.894(xi)-.15 G 3.894(sa)388.714 474 S
+1.394(ssigned to, otherwise the)400.938 474 R(inde)72 486 Q 3.656(xo)-.15 G
+3.656(ft)102.726 486 S 1.156(he element assigned is the last inde)112.492 486 R
+3.657(xa)-.15 G 1.157(ssigned to by the statement plus one.)272.917 486 R(Inde)
+6.157 E 1.157(xing starts at)-.15 F 2.73(zero. The)72 498 R .23
+(same syntax is accepted by)2.73 F F1(declar)2.73 E(e)-.18 E F0 5.229(.I)C(ndi)
+269.159 498 Q .229(vidual array elements may be assigned to using the ksh)-.25
+F F2(name)72 510 Q F0([)A F2(subscript)A F0(]=)A F2(value)A F0(.)A F1 2.5
+(5.2. Dynamic)72 534 R(Loading)2.5 E F0 .348(On systems that support the)97
+549.6 R F2(dlopen)2.848 E F0 .349(\(3\) library function, bash-2.0 will allo)B
+2.849(wn)-.25 G .849 -.25(ew b)407.504 549.6 T .349(uiltins to be loaded).05 F
+.049(into a running shell from a shared object \214le.)72 561.6 R .049(The ne)
+5.049 F 2.549(wb)-.25 G .049(uiltins will ha)298.999 561.6 R .348 -.15(ve a)-.2
+H .048(ccess to the rest of the shell f).15 F(acil-)-.1 E .649(ities, b)72
+573.6 R .649(ut programmers will be subject to a fe)-.2 F 3.149(ws)-.25 G .649
+(tructural rules.)269.591 573.6 R .65(This will be pro)5.65 F .65
+(vided via a ne)-.15 F 3.15(wo)-.25 G .65(ption to)472.51 573.6 R F1(enable)72
+585.6 Q F0(.)A F1 2.5(5.3. Builtins)72 609.6 R F0 .889(Some of the e)97 625.2 R
+.889(xisting b)-.15 F .889(uiltins will change in bash-2.0.)-.2 F .888(As pre)
+5.888 F .888(viously noted,)-.25 F F1(declar)3.388 E(e)-.18 E F0(,)A F1(export)
+3.388 E F0(,)A F1 -.18(re)3.388 G(ad-).18 E(only)72 637.2 Q F0 2.873(,a)C(nd)
+100.153 637.2 Q F1 -.18(re)2.873 G(ad).18 E F0 .373(will accept ne)2.873 F
+2.873(wo)-.25 G .374(ptions to specify arrays.)206.288 637.2 R(The)5.374 E F1
+(jobs)2.874 E F0 -.2(bu)2.874 G .374(iltin will be able to list only stopped).2
+F .323(or running jobs.)72 649.2 R(The)5.322 E F1(enable)2.822 E F0 .322
+(command will tak)2.822 F 2.822(ean)-.1 G -.25(ew)282.84 649.2 S F1<ad73>3.072
+E F0 .322(option to restrict its actions to the POSIX.2)2.822 F F2(spe-)2.822 E
+(cial)72 661.2 Q F0 -.2(bu)3.14 G(iltins.).2 E F1(Kill)5.64 E F0 .64
+(will be able to list signal numbers corresponding to indi)3.14 F .64
+(vidual signal names.)-.25 F .64(The read-)5.64 F .703(line library interf)72
+673.2 R(ace,)-.1 E F1(bind)3.203 E F0 3.203(,w)C .703(ill ha)193.032 673.2 R
+1.003 -.15(ve a)-.2 H 3.203(no).15 G .703(ption to remo)243.951 673.2 R 1.003
+-.15(ve t)-.15 H .703(he binding for an).15 F 3.203(yk)-.15 G 1.002 -.15(ey s)
+398.032 673.2 T .702(equence \(which is not).15 F
+(the same as binding it to self-insert\).)72 685.2 Q .494(There will be tw)97
+700.8 R 2.994(on)-.1 G .994 -.25(ew b)177.196 700.8 T .495
+(uiltin commands in bash-2.0.).05 F(The)5.495 E F1(diso)2.995 E(wn)-.1 E F0
+.495(command will remo)2.995 F .795 -.15(ve j)-.15 H .495(obs from).15 F(bash')
+72 712.8 Q 3.445(si)-.55 G .945(nternal jobs table when job control is acti)
+103.225 712.8 R -.15(ve)-.25 G 5.945(.A).15 G(diso)303.25 712.8 Q .944
+(wned job will not be listed by the jobs com-)-.25 F .666(mand, nor will its e)
+72 724.8 R .666(xit status be reported.)-.15 F(Diso)5.667 E .667
+(wned jobs will not be sent a)-.25 F F1(SIGHUP)3.167 E F0 .667
+(when an interacti)3.167 F -.15(ve)-.25 G EP
+%%Page: 12 12
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-1)277.17 48 S 2.5(2-)288 48 S .688(shell e)72 84 R
+3.187(xits. Most)-.15 F .687(of the shell')3.187 F 3.187(so)-.55 G .687
+(ptional or)205.423 84 R/F1 10/Times-Italic@0 SF(to)3.187 E -.1(gg)-.1 G(led).1
+E F0 .687(functionality will be folded into the ne)3.187 F(w)-.25 E/F2 10
+/Times-Bold@0 SF(shopt)3.187 E F0 -.2(bu)3.187 G(iltin.).2 E(Man)72 96 Q 3.714
+(yo)-.15 G 3.714(ft)103.894 96 S 1.214(he v)113.718 96 R 1.214
+(ariables which alter the shell')-.25 F 3.714(sb)-.55 G(eha)266.282 96 Q 1.214
+(vior when set \(re)-.2 F -.05(ga)-.15 G 1.214(rdless of their v).05 F 1.215
+(alue\) will be made)-.25 F 6(options settable with)72 108 R F2(shopt)8.5 E F0
+11(.E)C 6(xamples of such v)218.23 108 R 6(ariables include)-.25 F F2(allo)8.5
+E(w_null_glob_expansion)-.1 E F0(,)A F2(glob_dot_\214lenames)72 120 Q F0 2.5
+(,a)C(nd)163.67 120 Q F2(MAIL_W)2.5 E(ARNING)-1.2 E F0(.)A F2 2.5(5.4. V)72 144
+R(ariables and V)-.92 E(ariable Expansion)-.92 E F0 .047
+(Bash-2.0 will implement se)97 159.6 R -.15(ve)-.25 G .048(ral ne).15 F 2.548
+(wv)-.25 G .048(ariable e)252.988 159.6 R 2.548(xpansions. These)-.15 F .048
+(will answer se)2.548 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .048(ral of the most per).15 F(-)-.2 E
+.213(sistant requests for ne)72 171.6 R 2.713(wf)-.25 G 2.713(eatures. It)
+172.582 171.6 R .213(will be possible to `)2.713 F .212(`indirectly reference')
+-.74 F 2.712('av)-.74 G .212(ariable with an e)398.534 171.6 R(xpansion,)-.15 E
+(lik)72 183.6 Q 3.01(eu)-.1 G(sing)94.91 183.6 Q/F3 10/Courier@0 SF .51
+(eval \\$${name})3.01 F F0 .51(to reference a v)3.01 F .51(ariable named by)
+-.25 F F3(${name})3.01 E F0 5.51(.E)C .51(xpansions will be a)394.32 183.6 R
+-.25(va)-.2 G(ilable).25 E .462(to retrie)72 195.6 R .762 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .462
+(ubstrings of v).15 F .461(ariables in an)-.25 F F1(awk)2.961 E F0(-lik)A 2.961
+(em)-.1 G .461(anner: starting at a speci\214c inde)277.692 195.6 R .461
+(x, retrie)-.15 F .461(ving some num-)-.25 F .941
+(ber of characters or the rest of the string.)72 207.6 R .941
+(It will be possible to retrie)5.941 F 1.241 -.15(ve s)-.25 H .941
+(equences of array elements lik).15 F(e)-.1 E .354(this, too.)72 219.6 R .354
+(It w)5.354 F .354(ould be nice to ha)-.1 F .654 -.15(ve a w)-.2 H .354
+(ay to replace portions of a v).05 F .353
+(ariable matching a pattern the same w)-.25 F(ay)-.1 E(leading or trailing sub\
+strings are presently stripped; that capability may be a)72 231.6 Q -.25(va)-.2
+G(ilable.).25 E .453(Another ne)97 247.2 R 2.953(we)-.25 G .453
+(xpansion will pro)156.376 247.2 R .453(vide a w)-.15 F .454
+(ay to create strings containing arbitrary characters, which is)-.1 F(incon)72
+259.2 Q -.15(ve)-.4 G 1.636(nient in the current v).15 F 4.136(ersion. W)-.15 F
+1.635(ords of the form $')-.8 F F1(string)A F0 4.135('w)C 1.635(ill e)355.145
+259.2 R 1.635(xpand to)-.15 F F1(string)4.135 E F0 1.635(with backslash-)4.135
+F 1.231(escaped characters in)72 271.2 R F1(string)3.731 E F0 1.231
+(replaced as speci\214ed by the ANSI C standard.)3.731 F 1.232
+(As with other single-quoted)6.232 F
+(shell strings, the only character that may not appear in)72 283.2 Q F1(string)
+2.5 E F0(is a single quote.)2.5 E 1.436(The shell v)97 298.8 R 1.436
+(ariables will change also.)-.25 F 3.936(An)6.436 G 1.936 -.25(ew va)272.052
+298.8 T(riable).25 E F2(HISTIGNORE)3.936 E F0 1.435(will supersede)3.936 F F2
+(HISTCON-)3.935 E(TR)72 310.8 Q(OL)-.3 E F0(.)A F2(HISTIGNORE)5.327 E F0 .327
+(is the history analogy of)2.827 F F2(FIGNORE)2.828 E F0 2.828(:ac)C .328
+(olon-separated list of patterns specifying)339.938 310.8 R 1.082
+(commands to omit from the history list.)72 322.8 R 1.081
+(The special pattern '&' will match the pre)6.081 F 1.081
+(vious history line, to)-.25 F(pro)72 334.8 Q 1.568(vide the)-.15 F F2
+(HISTCONTR)4.068 E(OL)-.3 E F1(ignor)4.068 E(edups)-.37 E F0(beha)5.734 E(vior)
+-.2 E 6.568(.M)-.55 G(an)303.546 334.8 Q 4.069(yv)-.15 G 1.569
+(ariables which modify the shell')326.655 334.8 R 4.069(sb)-.55 G(eha)474.21
+334.8 Q(vior)-.2 E .395(will lose their special meaning.)72 346.8 R -1.11(Va)
+5.395 G .395(riables such as)1.11 F F2(notify)2.895 E F0(and)2.895 E F2(noclob)
+2.895 E(ber)-.1 E F0 .395(which pro)2.895 F .395(vide functionality a)-.15 F
+-.25(va)-.2 G(il-).25 E .931
+(able via other mechanisms will no longer be treated specially)72 358.8 R 5.931
+(.O)-.65 G .931(ther v)340.06 358.8 R .932(ariables will be folded into)-.25 F
+F2(shopt)3.432 E F0(.)A(The)72 370.8 Q F2(history_contr)5.519 E(ol)-.18 E F0
+(and)5.519 E F2(hostname_completion_\214le)5.519 E F0 -.25(va)5.519 G 3.019
+(riables, superseded by).25 F F2(HISTCONTR)5.518 E(OL)-.3 E F0(and)5.518 E F2
+(HOSTFILE)72 382.8 Q F0(respecti)2.5 E -.15(ve)-.25 G(ly).15 E 2.5(,w)-.65 G
+(ill be remo)185.12 382.8 Q -.15(ve)-.15 G(d.).15 E F2 2.5(5.5. Readline)72
+406.8 R F0(Naturally)97 422.4 Q 2.94(,t)-.65 G .44(here will be impro)142.34
+422.4 R -.15(ve)-.15 G .441(ments to readline as well.).15 F .441
+(All of the POSIX.2)5.441 F F1(vi)2.941 E F0 .441(-mode editing com-)B .33
+(mands will be implemented; missing commands lik)72 434.4 R 2.829(e`)-.1 G .329
+(m' to sa)290.599 434.4 R .629 -.15(ve t)-.2 H .329
+(he current cursor position \().15 F F1(mark)A F0 2.829(\)a)C .329(nd the)
+478.951 434.4 R .36(`@' command for macro e)72 446.4 R .36(xpansion will be a)
+-.15 F -.25(va)-.2 G 2.861(ilable. The).25 F .361
+(ability to set the mark and e)2.861 F .361(xchange the current)-.15 F .764
+(cursor position \()72 458.4 R F1(point)A F0 3.264(\)a)C .764
+(nd mark will be added to the readline emacs mode as well.)170.672 458.4 R .763
+(Since there are com-)5.764 F .196
+(mands to set the mark, commands to manipulate the re)72 470.4 R .197
+(gion \(the characters between the point and the mark\))-.15 F .111(will be a)
+72 482.4 R -.25(va)-.2 G 2.611(ilable. Commands).25 F(ha)2.611 E .411 -.15
+(ve b)-.2 H .11
+(een added to the readline emacs mode for more complete ksh compati-).15 F
+(bility)72 494.4 Q 2.5(,s)-.65 G(uch as the C-])101.36 494.4 Q F1(c)A F0
+(character search command.)2.5 E F2 2.5(5.6. Con\214guration)72 518.4 R F0 .318
+(Bash w)97 534 R .318
+(as the \214rst GNU program to completely autocon\214gure.)-.1 F .319
+(Its autocon\214guration mechanism pre-)5.319 F(dates)72 546 Q F1(autoconf)4.07
+E F0 4.07(,t)C 1.569
+(he current GNU con\214guration program, and needs updating.)140.97 546 R 1.569
+(Bash-2.0 may include an)6.569 F .603
+(autoconf-based con\214guration script, if necessary ne)72 558 R 3.103(wf)-.25
+G .603(unctionality can be added to autoconf, or its limita-)294.476 558 R
+(tions bypassed.)72 570 Q F2 2.5(5.7. Miscellaneous)72 594 R F0 1.632
+(The POSIX mode will be impro)97 609.6 R -.15(ve)-.15 G 4.131(di).15 G 4.131
+(nb)254.26 609.6 S 1.631(ash-2.0; it will pro)268.391 609.6 R 1.631
+(vide a more complete superset of the)-.15 F(POSIX standard.)72 621.6 Q -.15
+(Fo)5 G 2.5(rt).15 G(he \214rst time, bash will recognize the e)163.79 621.6 Q
+(xistance of the POSIX.2)-.15 E F1(special)2.5 E F0 -.2(bu)2.5 G(iltins.).2 E
+2.627(An)97 637.2 S .627 -.25(ew t)111.847 637.2 T .127(rap v).25 F(alue,)-.25
+E F2(DEB)2.627 E(UG)-.1 E F0 2.627(,w)C .128(ill be present, as in ksh.)218.405
+637.2 R .128(Commands speci\214ed with a)5.128 F F2(DEB)2.628 E(UG)-.1 E F0
+.128(trap will)2.628 F 1.908(be e)72 649.2 R -.15(xe)-.15 G 1.908
+(cuted after e).15 F -.15(ve)-.25 G 1.908(ry simple command.).15 F 1.908
+(Since this mak)6.908 F 1.908(es shell script deb)-.1 F 1.908
+(uggers possible, I hope to)-.2 F(include a bash deb)72 661.2 Q
+(ugger in the bash-2.0 release.)-.2 E F2 2.5(6. A)72 685.2 R -.1(va)-1 G
+(ilability).1 E F0 5.997(The current v)97 700.8 R 5.997(ersion of bash is a)
+-.15 F -.25(va)-.2 G 5.998(ilable for anon).25 F 5.998
+(ymous FTP from prep.ai.mit.edu as)-.15 F F1(/pub/gnu/bash-1.14.2.tar)72 712.8
+Q(.gz)-1.11 E F0(.)1.666 E EP
+%%Page: 13 13
+%%BeginPageSetup
+BP
+%%EndPageSetup
+/F0 10/Times-Roman@0 SF 2.5(-1)277.17 48 S 2.5(3-)288 48 S/F1 10/Times-Bold@0
+SF 2.5(7. Conclusion)72 84 R F0 .755(This paper has presented an o)97 99.6 R
+-.15(ve)-.15 G(rvie).15 E 3.255(wo)-.25 G 3.255(fb)259.27 99.6 S .755
+(ash, compared its features with those of other shells, and)270.855 99.6 R
+(hinted at features in the ne)72 111.6 Q(xt release, bash-2.0.)-.15 E .483
+(Bash is a solid replacement for sh.)97 127.2 R .483(It is suf)5.483 F .483
+(\214ciently portable to run on nearly e)-.25 F -.15(ve)-.25 G .484(ry v).15 F
+.484(ersion of)-.15 F/F2 9/Times-Roman@0 SF(UNIX)2.984 E F0 .514
+(from 4.3 BSD to SVR4.2, and se)72 139.2 R -.15(ve)-.25 G(ral).15 E F2(UNIX)
+3.013 E F0 -.1(wo)3.013 G(rkalik).1 E .513(es, and rob)-.1 F .513
+(ust enough to replace sh on most of those)-.2 F .771(systems, It is v)72 151.2
+R .771(ery close to POSIX.2-conformant in POSIX mode, and is getting f)-.15 F
+(aster)-.1 E 5.771(.I)-.55 G 3.272(ti)436.684 151.2 S 3.272(sn)445.516 151.2 S
+.772(ot, unfortu-)457.678 151.2 R(nately)72 163.2 Q 2.663(,g)-.65 G .163
+(etting smaller)105.953 163.2 R 2.663(,b)-.4 G .163(ut there are man)170.399
+163.2 R 2.663(yo)-.15 G .163(ptional features.)248.101 163.2 R .163(It is v)
+5.163 F .162(ery easy to b)-.15 F .162(uild a small subset to use as)-.2 F 2.5
+(ad)72 175.2 S(irect replacement for /bin/sh.)83.94 175.2 Q .909
+(Bash has thousands of users w)97 190.8 R .909(orldwide, all of whom ha)-.1 F
+1.209 -.15(ve h)-.2 H .91(elped to mak).15 F 3.41(ei)-.1 G 3.41(tb)409.34 190.8
+S(etter)420.53 190.8 Q 5.91(.A)-.55 G .91(nother testa-)453.38 190.8 R
+(ment to the bene\214ts of free softw)72 202.8 Q(are.)-.1 E F1 2.5(8. Refer)72
+226.8 R(ences)-.18 E F0 .432([1] S. R. Bourne, `)72 242.4 R .432(`UNIX T)-.74 F
+.432(ime-Sharing System:)-.35 F .431(The UNIX Shell')5.431 F(',)-.74 E/F3 10
+/Times-Italic@0 SF .431(Bell System T)2.931 F(ec)-.92 E .431(hnical J)-.15 F
+(ournal)-.25 E F0 2.931(,5)C(7\(6\),)484.84 242.4 Q
+(July-August, 1978, pp. 1971-1990.)72 254.4 Q .736([2] Morris Bolsk)72 270 R
+3.237(ya)-.15 G .737(nd Da)153.22 270 R .737(vid K)-.2 F(orn,)-.35 E F3 .737
+(The K)3.237 F .737(ornShell Command and Pr)-.4 F -.1(og)-.45 G -.15(ra).1 G
+.737(mming Langua).15 F -.1(ge)-.1 G F0 3.237(,P).1 G .737(rentice Hall,)
+453.833 270 R(1989.)72 282 Q .142([3] Bill Jo)72 297.6 R 1.442 -.65(y, A)-.1 H
+2.642(nI).65 G .141(ntroduction to the C Shell,)140.428 297.6 R F3 .141
+(UNIX User')2.641 F 2.641(sS)-.4 G .141(upplementary Documents)309.346 297.6 R
+F0 2.641(,U)C(ni)424.328 297.6 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G .141(rsity of Califor).15 F(-)
+-.2 E(nia at Berk)72 309.6 Q(ele)-.1 E 1.3 -.65(y, 1)-.15 H(986.).65 E .283
+([4] IEEE,)72 325.2 R F3 .283(IEEE Standar)2.783 F 2.783(df)-.37 G .283
+(or Information T)179.692 325.2 R(ec)-.92 E(hnolo)-.15 E .283(gy -- P)-.1 F
+.283(ortable Oper)-.8 F .283(ating System Interface \(POSIX\) P)-.15 F(art)-.8
+E(2: Shell and Utilities)72 337.2 Q F0 2.5(,1)C(992.)165.06 337.2 Q F1 2.5
+(9. A)72 361.2 R(uthor Inf)-.5 E(ormation)-.25 E F0 .937(Chet Rame)97 376.8 R
+3.437(yi)-.15 G 3.437(sas)153.724 376.8 S(oftw)172.818 376.8 Q .936
+(are engineer w)-.1 F .936(orking at Case W)-.1 F .936(estern Reserv)-.8 F
+3.436(eU)-.15 G(ni)393.43 376.8 Q -.15(ve)-.25 G(rsity).15 E 5.936(.H)-.65 G
+3.436(eh)443.036 376.8 S .936(as a B.S. in)455.912 376.8 R .072
+(Computer Engineering and an M.S. in Computer Science, both from CWR)72 388.8 R
+2.573(U. He)-.4 F .073(has been w)2.573 F .073(orking on bash)-.1 F
+(for six years, and the primary maintainer for one.)72 400.8 Q EP
+%%Trailer
+end
+%%EOF
diff --git a/doc/texinfo.tex b/doc/texinfo.tex
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..555a077
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/texinfo.tex
@@ -0,0 +1,6688 @@
+% texinfo.tex -- TeX macros to handle Texinfo files.
+%
+% Load plain if necessary, i.e., if running under initex.
+\expandafter\ifx\csname fmtname\endcsname\relax\input plain\fi
+%
+\def\texinfoversion{2003-02-03.16}
+%
+% Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995,
+% 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+%
+% This texinfo.tex file is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
+% modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as
+% published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at
+% your option) any later version.
+%
+% This texinfo.tex file is distributed in the hope that it will be
+% useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty
+% of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU
+% General Public License for more details.
+%
+% You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+% along with this texinfo.tex file; see the file COPYING.  If not, write
+% to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330,
+% Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
+%
+% In other words, you are welcome to use, share and improve this program.
+% You are forbidden to forbid anyone else to use, share and improve
+% what you give them.   Help stamp out software-hoarding!
+%
+% Please try the latest version of texinfo.tex before submitting bug
+% reports; you can get the latest version from:
+%   ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/texinfo/texinfo.tex
+%     (and all GNU mirrors, see http://www.gnu.org/order/ftp.html)
+%   ftp://tug.org/tex/texinfo.tex
+%     (and all CTAN mirrors, see http://www.ctan.org),
+%   and /home/gd/gnu/doc/texinfo.tex on the GNU machines.
+% 
+% The GNU Texinfo home page is http://www.gnu.org/software/texinfo.
+% 
+% The texinfo.tex in any given Texinfo distribution could well be out
+% of date, so if that's what you're using, please check.
+% 
+% Send bug reports to bug-texinfo@gnu.org.  Please include including a
+% complete document in each bug report with which we can reproduce the
+% problem.  Patches are, of course, greatly appreciated.
+%
+% To process a Texinfo manual with TeX, it's most reliable to use the
+% texi2dvi shell script that comes with the distribution.  For a simple
+% manual foo.texi, however, you can get away with this:
+%   tex foo.texi
+%   texindex foo.??
+%   tex foo.texi
+%   tex foo.texi
+%   dvips foo.dvi -o  # or whatever; this makes foo.ps.
+% The extra TeX runs get the cross-reference information correct.
+% Sometimes one run after texindex suffices, and sometimes you need more
+% than two; texi2dvi does it as many times as necessary.
+% 
+% It is possible to adapt texinfo.tex for other languages, to some
+% extent.  You can get the existing language-specific files from the
+% full Texinfo distribution.
+
+\message{Loading texinfo [version \texinfoversion]:}
+
+% If in a .fmt file, print the version number
+% and turn on active characters that we couldn't do earlier because
+% they might have appeared in the input file name.
+\everyjob{\message{[Texinfo version \texinfoversion]}%
+  \catcode`+=\active \catcode`\_=\active}
+
+\message{Basics,}
+\chardef\other=12
+
+% We never want plain's outer \+ definition in Texinfo.
+% For @tex, we can use \tabalign.
+\let\+ = \relax
+
+% Save some parts of plain tex whose names we will redefine.
+\let\ptexb=\b
+\let\ptexbullet=\bullet
+\let\ptexc=\c
+\let\ptexcomma=\,
+\let\ptexdot=\.
+\let\ptexdots=\dots
+\let\ptexend=\end
+\let\ptexequiv=\equiv
+\let\ptexexclam=\!
+\let\ptexgtr=>
+\let\ptexhat=^
+\let\ptexi=\i
+\let\ptexlbrace=\{
+\let\ptexless=<
+\let\ptexplus=+
+\let\ptexrbrace=\}
+\let\ptexstar=\*
+\let\ptext=\t
+
+% If this character appears in an error message or help string, it
+% starts a new line in the output.
+\newlinechar = `^^J
+
+% Set up fixed words for English if not already set.
+\ifx\putwordAppendix\undefined  \gdef\putwordAppendix{Appendix}\fi
+\ifx\putwordChapter\undefined   \gdef\putwordChapter{Chapter}\fi
+\ifx\putwordfile\undefined      \gdef\putwordfile{file}\fi
+\ifx\putwordin\undefined        \gdef\putwordin{in}\fi
+\ifx\putwordIndexIsEmpty\undefined     \gdef\putwordIndexIsEmpty{(Index is empty)}\fi
+\ifx\putwordIndexNonexistent\undefined \gdef\putwordIndexNonexistent{(Index is nonexistent)}\fi
+\ifx\putwordInfo\undefined      \gdef\putwordInfo{Info}\fi
+\ifx\putwordInstanceVariableof\undefined \gdef\putwordInstanceVariableof{Instance Variable of}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMethodon\undefined  \gdef\putwordMethodon{Method on}\fi
+\ifx\putwordNoTitle\undefined   \gdef\putwordNoTitle{No Title}\fi
+\ifx\putwordof\undefined        \gdef\putwordof{of}\fi
+\ifx\putwordon\undefined        \gdef\putwordon{on}\fi
+\ifx\putwordpage\undefined      \gdef\putwordpage{page}\fi
+\ifx\putwordsection\undefined   \gdef\putwordsection{section}\fi
+\ifx\putwordSection\undefined   \gdef\putwordSection{Section}\fi
+\ifx\putwordsee\undefined       \gdef\putwordsee{see}\fi
+\ifx\putwordSee\undefined       \gdef\putwordSee{See}\fi
+\ifx\putwordShortTOC\undefined  \gdef\putwordShortTOC{Short Contents}\fi
+\ifx\putwordTOC\undefined       \gdef\putwordTOC{Table of Contents}\fi
+%
+\ifx\putwordMJan\undefined \gdef\putwordMJan{January}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMFeb\undefined \gdef\putwordMFeb{February}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMMar\undefined \gdef\putwordMMar{March}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMApr\undefined \gdef\putwordMApr{April}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMMay\undefined \gdef\putwordMMay{May}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMJun\undefined \gdef\putwordMJun{June}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMJul\undefined \gdef\putwordMJul{July}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMAug\undefined \gdef\putwordMAug{August}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMSep\undefined \gdef\putwordMSep{September}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMOct\undefined \gdef\putwordMOct{October}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMNov\undefined \gdef\putwordMNov{November}\fi
+\ifx\putwordMDec\undefined \gdef\putwordMDec{December}\fi
+%
+\ifx\putwordDefmac\undefined    \gdef\putwordDefmac{Macro}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDefspec\undefined   \gdef\putwordDefspec{Special Form}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDefvar\undefined    \gdef\putwordDefvar{Variable}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDefopt\undefined    \gdef\putwordDefopt{User Option}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDeftypevar\undefined\gdef\putwordDeftypevar{Variable}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDeffunc\undefined   \gdef\putwordDeffunc{Function}\fi
+\ifx\putwordDeftypefun\undefined\gdef\putwordDeftypefun{Function}\fi
+
+% In some macros, we cannot use the `\? notation---the left quote is
+% in some cases the escape char.
+\chardef\colonChar = `\:
+\chardef\commaChar = `\,
+\chardef\dotChar   = `\.
+\chardef\equalChar = `\=
+\chardef\exclamChar= `\!
+\chardef\questChar = `\?
+\chardef\semiChar  = `\;
+\chardef\spaceChar = `\ %
+\chardef\underChar = `\_
+
+% Ignore a token.
+%
+\def\gobble#1{}
+
+% True if #1 is the empty string, i.e., called like `\ifempty{}'.
+%
+\def\ifempty#1{\ifemptyx #1\emptymarkA\emptymarkB}%
+\def\ifemptyx#1#2\emptymarkB{\ifx #1\emptymarkA}%
+
+% Hyphenation fixes.
+\hyphenation{ap-pen-dix}
+\hyphenation{mini-buf-fer mini-buf-fers}
+\hyphenation{eshell}
+\hyphenation{white-space}
+
+% Margin to add to right of even pages, to left of odd pages.
+\newdimen\bindingoffset
+\newdimen\normaloffset
+\newdimen\pagewidth \newdimen\pageheight
+
+% Sometimes it is convenient to have everything in the transcript file
+% and nothing on the terminal.  We don't just call \tracingall here,
+% since that produces some useless output on the terminal.  We also make
+% some effort to order the tracing commands to reduce output in the log
+% file; cf. trace.sty in LaTeX.
+%
+\def\gloggingall{\begingroup \globaldefs = 1 \loggingall \endgroup}%
+\def\loggingall{%
+  \tracingstats2
+  \tracingpages1
+  \tracinglostchars2  % 2 gives us more in etex
+  \tracingparagraphs1
+  \tracingoutput1
+  \tracingmacros2
+  \tracingrestores1
+  \showboxbreadth\maxdimen \showboxdepth\maxdimen
+  \ifx\eTeXversion\undefined\else % etex gives us more logging
+    \tracingscantokens1
+    \tracingifs1
+    \tracinggroups1
+    \tracingnesting2
+    \tracingassigns1
+  \fi
+  \tracingcommands3  % 3 gives us more in etex
+  \errorcontextlines\maxdimen
+}%
+
+% add check for \lastpenalty to plain's definitions.  If the last thing
+% we did was a \nobreak, we don't want to insert more space.
+% 
+\def\smallbreak{\ifnum\lastpenalty<10000\par\ifdim\lastskip<\smallskipamount
+  \removelastskip\penalty-50\smallskip\fi\fi}
+\def\medbreak{\ifnum\lastpenalty<10000\par\ifdim\lastskip<\medskipamount
+  \removelastskip\penalty-100\medskip\fi\fi}
+\def\bigbreak{\ifnum\lastpenalty<10000\par\ifdim\lastskip<\bigskipamount
+  \removelastskip\penalty-200\bigskip\fi\fi}
+
+% For @cropmarks command.
+% Do @cropmarks to get crop marks.
+%
+\newif\ifcropmarks
+\let\cropmarks = \cropmarkstrue
+%
+% Dimensions to add cropmarks at corners.
+% Added by P. A. MacKay, 12 Nov. 1986
+%
+\newdimen\outerhsize \newdimen\outervsize % set by the paper size routines
+\newdimen\cornerlong  \cornerlong=1pc
+\newdimen\cornerthick \cornerthick=.3pt
+\newdimen\topandbottommargin \topandbottommargin=.75in
+
+% Main output routine.
+\chardef\PAGE = 255
+\output = {\onepageout{\pagecontents\PAGE}}
+
+\newbox\headlinebox
+\newbox\footlinebox
+
+% \onepageout takes a vbox as an argument.  Note that \pagecontents
+% does insertions, but you have to call it yourself.
+\def\onepageout#1{%
+  \ifcropmarks \hoffset=0pt \else \hoffset=\normaloffset \fi
+  %
+  \ifodd\pageno  \advance\hoffset by \bindingoffset
+  \else \advance\hoffset by -\bindingoffset\fi
+  %
+  % Do this outside of the \shipout so @code etc. will be expanded in
+  % the headline as they should be, not taken literally (outputting ''code).
+  \setbox\headlinebox = \vbox{\let\hsize=\pagewidth \makeheadline}%
+  \setbox\footlinebox = \vbox{\let\hsize=\pagewidth \makefootline}%
+  %
+  {%
+    % Have to do this stuff outside the \shipout because we want it to
+    % take effect in \write's, yet the group defined by the \vbox ends
+    % before the \shipout runs.
+    %
+    \escapechar = `\\     % use backslash in output files.
+    \indexdummies         % don't expand commands in the output.
+    \normalturnoffactive  % \ in index entries must not stay \, e.g., if
+                   % the page break happens to be in the middle of an example.
+    \shipout\vbox{%
+      % Do this early so pdf references go to the beginning of the page.
+      \ifpdfmakepagedest \pdfmkdest{\the\pageno} \fi
+      %
+      \ifcropmarks \vbox to \outervsize\bgroup
+        \hsize = \outerhsize
+        \vskip-\topandbottommargin
+        \vtop to0pt{%
+          \line{\ewtop\hfil\ewtop}%
+          \nointerlineskip
+          \line{%
+            \vbox{\moveleft\cornerthick\nstop}%
+            \hfill
+            \vbox{\moveright\cornerthick\nstop}%
+          }%
+          \vss}%
+        \vskip\topandbottommargin
+        \line\bgroup
+          \hfil % center the page within the outer (page) hsize.
+          \ifodd\pageno\hskip\bindingoffset\fi
+          \vbox\bgroup
+      \fi
+      %
+      \unvbox\headlinebox
+      \pagebody{#1}%
+      \ifdim\ht\footlinebox > 0pt
+        % Only leave this space if the footline is nonempty.
+        % (We lessened \vsize for it in \oddfootingxxx.)
+        % The \baselineskip=24pt in plain's \makefootline has no effect.
+        \vskip 2\baselineskip
+        \unvbox\footlinebox
+      \fi
+      %
+      \ifcropmarks
+          \egroup % end of \vbox\bgroup
+        \hfil\egroup % end of (centering) \line\bgroup
+        \vskip\topandbottommargin plus1fill minus1fill
+        \boxmaxdepth = \cornerthick
+        \vbox to0pt{\vss
+          \line{%
+            \vbox{\moveleft\cornerthick\nsbot}%
+            \hfill
+            \vbox{\moveright\cornerthick\nsbot}%
+          }%
+          \nointerlineskip
+          \line{\ewbot\hfil\ewbot}%
+        }%
+      \egroup % \vbox from first cropmarks clause
+      \fi
+    }% end of \shipout\vbox
+  }% end of group with \normalturnoffactive
+  \advancepageno
+  \ifnum\outputpenalty>-20000 \else\dosupereject\fi
+}
+
+\newinsert\margin \dimen\margin=\maxdimen
+
+\def\pagebody#1{\vbox to\pageheight{\boxmaxdepth=\maxdepth #1}}
+{\catcode`\@ =11
+\gdef\pagecontents#1{\ifvoid\topins\else\unvbox\topins\fi
+% marginal hacks, juha@viisa.uucp (Juha Takala)
+\ifvoid\margin\else % marginal info is present
+  \rlap{\kern\hsize\vbox to\z@{\kern1pt\box\margin \vss}}\fi
+\dimen@=\dp#1 \unvbox#1
+\ifvoid\footins\else\vskip\skip\footins\footnoterule \unvbox\footins\fi
+\ifr@ggedbottom \kern-\dimen@ \vfil \fi}
+}
+
+% Here are the rules for the cropmarks.  Note that they are
+% offset so that the space between them is truly \outerhsize or \outervsize
+% (P. A. MacKay, 12 November, 1986)
+%
+\def\ewtop{\vrule height\cornerthick depth0pt width\cornerlong}
+\def\nstop{\vbox
+  {\hrule height\cornerthick depth\cornerlong width\cornerthick}}
+\def\ewbot{\vrule height0pt depth\cornerthick width\cornerlong}
+\def\nsbot{\vbox
+  {\hrule height\cornerlong depth\cornerthick width\cornerthick}}
+
+% Parse an argument, then pass it to #1.  The argument is the rest of
+% the input line (except we remove a trailing comment).  #1 should be a
+% macro which expects an ordinary undelimited TeX argument.
+%
+\def\parsearg#1{%
+  \let\next = #1%
+  \begingroup
+    \obeylines
+    \futurelet\temp\parseargx
+}
+
+% If the next token is an obeyed space (from an @example environment or
+% the like), remove it and recurse.  Otherwise, we're done.
+\def\parseargx{%
+  % \obeyedspace is defined far below, after the definition of \sepspaces.
+  \ifx\obeyedspace\temp
+    \expandafter\parseargdiscardspace
+  \else
+    \expandafter\parseargline
+  \fi
+}
+
+% Remove a single space (as the delimiter token to the macro call).
+{\obeyspaces %
+ \gdef\parseargdiscardspace {\futurelet\temp\parseargx}}
+
+{\obeylines %
+  \gdef\parseargline#1^^M{%
+    \endgroup % End of the group started in \parsearg.
+    %
+    % First remove any @c comment, then any @comment.
+    % Result of each macro is put in \toks0.
+    \argremovec #1\c\relax %
+    \expandafter\argremovecomment \the\toks0 \comment\relax %
+    %
+    % Call the caller's macro, saved as \next in \parsearg.
+    \expandafter\next\expandafter{\the\toks0}%
+  }%
+}
+
+% Since all \c{,omment} does is throw away the argument, we can let TeX
+% do that for us.  The \relax here is matched by the \relax in the call
+% in \parseargline; it could be more or less anything, its purpose is
+% just to delimit the argument to the \c.
+\def\argremovec#1\c#2\relax{\toks0 = {#1}}
+\def\argremovecomment#1\comment#2\relax{\toks0 = {#1}}
+
+% \argremovec{,omment} might leave us with trailing spaces, though; e.g.,
+%    @end itemize  @c foo
+% will have two active spaces as part of the argument with the
+% `itemize'.  Here we remove all active spaces from #1, and assign the
+% result to \toks0.
+%
+% This loses if there are any *other* active characters besides spaces
+% in the argument -- _ ^ +, for example -- since they get expanded.
+% Fortunately, Texinfo does not define any such commands.  (If it ever
+% does, the catcode of the characters in questionwill have to be changed
+% here.)  But this means we cannot call \removeactivespaces as part of
+% \argremovec{,omment}, since @c uses \parsearg, and thus the argument
+% that \parsearg gets might well have any character at all in it.
+%
+\def\removeactivespaces#1{%
+  \begingroup
+    \ignoreactivespaces
+    \edef\temp{#1}%
+    \global\toks0 = \expandafter{\temp}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% Change the active space to expand to nothing.
+%
+\begingroup
+  \obeyspaces
+  \gdef\ignoreactivespaces{\obeyspaces\let =\empty}
+\endgroup
+
+
+\def\flushcr{\ifx\par\lisppar \def\next##1{}\else \let\next=\relax \fi \next}
+
+%% These are used to keep @begin/@end levels from running away
+%% Call \inENV within environments (after a \begingroup)
+\newif\ifENV \ENVfalse \def\inENV{\ifENV\relax\else\ENVtrue\fi}
+\def\ENVcheck{%
+\ifENV\errmessage{Still within an environment; press RETURN to continue}
+\endgroup\fi} % This is not perfect, but it should reduce lossage
+
+% @begin foo  is the same as @foo, for now.
+\newhelp\EMsimple{Press RETURN to continue.}
+
+\outer\def\begin{\parsearg\beginxxx}
+
+\def\beginxxx #1{%
+\expandafter\ifx\csname #1\endcsname\relax
+{\errhelp=\EMsimple \errmessage{Undefined command @begin #1}}\else
+\csname #1\endcsname\fi}
+
+% @end foo executes the definition of \Efoo.
+%
+\def\end{\parsearg\endxxx}
+\def\endxxx #1{%
+  \removeactivespaces{#1}%
+  \edef\endthing{\the\toks0}%
+  %
+  \expandafter\ifx\csname E\endthing\endcsname\relax
+    \expandafter\ifx\csname \endthing\endcsname\relax
+      % There's no \foo, i.e., no ``environment'' foo.
+      \errhelp = \EMsimple
+      \errmessage{Undefined command `@end \endthing'}%
+    \else
+      \unmatchedenderror\endthing
+    \fi
+  \else
+    % Everything's ok; the right environment has been started.
+    \csname E\endthing\endcsname
+  \fi
+}
+
+% There is an environment #1, but it hasn't been started.  Give an error.
+%
+\def\unmatchedenderror#1{%
+  \errhelp = \EMsimple
+  \errmessage{This `@end #1' doesn't have a matching `@#1'}%
+}
+
+% Define the control sequence \E#1 to give an unmatched @end error.
+%
+\def\defineunmatchedend#1{%
+  \expandafter\def\csname E#1\endcsname{\unmatchedenderror{#1}}%
+}
+
+
+%% Simple single-character @ commands
+
+% @@ prints an @
+% Kludge this until the fonts are right (grr).
+\def\@{{\tt\char64}}
+
+% This is turned off because it was never documented
+% and you can use @w{...} around a quote to suppress ligatures.
+%% Define @` and @' to be the same as ` and '
+%% but suppressing ligatures.
+%\def\`{{`}}
+%\def\'{{'}}
+
+% Used to generate quoted braces.
+\def\mylbrace {{\tt\char123}}
+\def\myrbrace {{\tt\char125}}
+\let\{=\mylbrace
+\let\}=\myrbrace
+\begingroup
+  % Definitions to produce \{ and \} commands for indices,
+  % and @{ and @} for the aux file.
+  \catcode`\{ = \other \catcode`\} = \other
+  \catcode`\[ = 1 \catcode`\] = 2
+  \catcode`\! = 0 \catcode`\\ = \other
+  !gdef!lbracecmd[\{]%
+  !gdef!rbracecmd[\}]%
+  !gdef!lbraceatcmd[@{]%
+  !gdef!rbraceatcmd[@}]%
+!endgroup
+
+% Accents: @, @dotaccent @ringaccent @ubaraccent @udotaccent
+% Others are defined by plain TeX: @` @' @" @^ @~ @= @u @v @H.
+\let\, = \c
+\let\dotaccent = \.
+\def\ringaccent#1{{\accent23 #1}}
+\let\tieaccent = \t
+\let\ubaraccent = \b
+\let\udotaccent = \d
+
+% Other special characters: @questiondown @exclamdown
+% Plain TeX defines: @AA @AE @O @OE @L (plus lowercase versions) @ss.
+\def\questiondown{?`}
+\def\exclamdown{!`}
+
+% Dotless i and dotless j, used for accents.
+\def\imacro{i}
+\def\jmacro{j}
+\def\dotless#1{%
+  \def\temp{#1}%
+  \ifx\temp\imacro \ptexi
+  \else\ifx\temp\jmacro \j
+  \else \errmessage{@dotless can be used only with i or j}%
+  \fi\fi
+}
+
+% Be sure we're in horizontal mode when doing a tie, since we make space
+% equivalent to this in @example-like environments. Otherwise, a space
+% at the beginning of a line will start with \penalty -- and
+% since \penalty is valid in vertical mode, we'd end up putting the
+% penalty on the vertical list instead of in the new paragraph.
+{\catcode`@ = 11
+ % Avoid using \@M directly, because that causes trouble
+ % if the definition is written into an index file.
+ \global\let\tiepenalty = \@M
+ \gdef\tie{\leavevmode\penalty\tiepenalty\ }
+}
+
+% @: forces normal size whitespace following.
+\def\:{\spacefactor=1000 }
+
+% @* forces a line break.
+\def\*{\hfil\break\hbox{}\ignorespaces}
+
+% @. is an end-of-sentence period.
+\def\.{.\spacefactor=3000 }
+
+% @! is an end-of-sentence bang.
+\def\!{!\spacefactor=3000 }
+
+% @? is an end-of-sentence query.
+\def\?{?\spacefactor=3000 }
+
+% @w prevents a word break.  Without the \leavevmode, @w at the
+% beginning of a paragraph, when TeX is still in vertical mode, would
+% produce a whole line of output instead of starting the paragraph.
+\def\w#1{\leavevmode\hbox{#1}}
+
+% @group ... @end group forces ... to be all on one page, by enclosing
+% it in a TeX vbox.  We use \vtop instead of \vbox to construct the box
+% to keep its height that of a normal line.  According to the rules for
+% \topskip (p.114 of the TeXbook), the glue inserted is
+% max (\topskip - \ht (first item), 0).  If that height is large,
+% therefore, no glue is inserted, and the space between the headline and
+% the text is small, which looks bad.
+%
+% Another complication is that the group might be very large.  This can
+% cause the glue on the previous page to be unduly stretched, because it
+% does not have much material.  In this case, it's better to add an
+% explicit \vfill so that the extra space is at the bottom.  The
+% threshold for doing this is if the group is more than \vfilllimit
+% percent of a page (\vfilllimit can be changed inside of @tex).
+% 
+\newbox\groupbox
+\def\vfilllimit{0.7}
+%
+\def\group{\begingroup
+  \ifnum\catcode13=\active \else
+    \errhelp = \groupinvalidhelp
+    \errmessage{@group invalid in context where filling is enabled}%
+  \fi
+  %
+  % The \vtop we start below produces a box with normal height and large
+  % depth; thus, TeX puts \baselineskip glue before it, and (when the
+  % next line of text is done) \lineskip glue after it.  (See p.82 of
+  % the TeXbook.)  Thus, space below is not quite equal to space
+  % above.  But it's pretty close.
+  \def\Egroup{%
+    \egroup           % End the \vtop.
+    % \dimen0 is the vertical size of the group's box.
+    \dimen0 = \ht\groupbox  \advance\dimen0 by \dp\groupbox
+    % \dimen2 is how much space is left on the page (more or less).
+    \dimen2 = \pageheight   \advance\dimen2 by -\pagetotal
+    % if the group doesn't fit on the current page, and it's a big big
+    % group, force a page break.
+    \ifdim \dimen0 > \dimen2
+      \ifdim \pagetotal < \vfilllimit\pageheight
+        \page
+      \fi
+    \fi
+    \copy\groupbox
+    \endgroup         % End the \group.
+  }%
+  %
+  \setbox\groupbox = \vtop\bgroup
+    % We have to put a strut on the last line in case the @group is in
+    % the midst of an example, rather than completely enclosing it.
+    % Otherwise, the interline space between the last line of the group
+    % and the first line afterwards is too small.  But we can't put the
+    % strut in \Egroup, since there it would be on a line by itself.
+    % Hence this just inserts a strut at the beginning of each line.
+    \everypar = {\strut}%
+    %
+    % Since we have a strut on every line, we don't need any of TeX's
+    % normal interline spacing.
+    \offinterlineskip
+    %
+    % OK, but now we have to do something about blank
+    % lines in the input in @example-like environments, which normally
+    % just turn into \lisppar, which will insert no space now that we've
+    % turned off the interline space.  Simplest is to make them be an
+    % empty paragraph.
+    \ifx\par\lisppar
+      \edef\par{\leavevmode \par}%
+      %
+      % Reset ^^M's definition to new definition of \par.
+      \obeylines
+    \fi
+    %
+    % Do @comment since we are called inside an environment such as
+    % @example, where each end-of-line in the input causes an
+    % end-of-line in the output.  We don't want the end-of-line after
+    % the `@group' to put extra space in the output.  Since @group
+    % should appear on a line by itself (according to the Texinfo
+    % manual), we don't worry about eating any user text.
+    \comment
+}
+%
+% TeX puts in an \escapechar (i.e., `@') at the beginning of the help
+% message, so this ends up printing `@group can only ...'.
+%
+\newhelp\groupinvalidhelp{%
+group can only be used in environments such as @example,^^J%
+where each line of input produces a line of output.}
+
+% @need space-in-mils
+% forces a page break if there is not space-in-mils remaining.
+
+\newdimen\mil  \mil=0.001in
+
+\def\need{\parsearg\needx}
+
+% Old definition--didn't work.
+%\def\needx #1{\par %
+%% This method tries to make TeX break the page naturally
+%% if the depth of the box does not fit.
+%{\baselineskip=0pt%
+%\vtop to #1\mil{\vfil}\kern -#1\mil\nobreak
+%\prevdepth=-1000pt
+%}}
+
+\def\needx#1{%
+  % Ensure vertical mode, so we don't make a big box in the middle of a
+  % paragraph.
+  \par
+  %
+  % If the @need value is less than one line space, it's useless.
+  \dimen0 = #1\mil
+  \dimen2 = \ht\strutbox
+  \advance\dimen2 by \dp\strutbox
+  \ifdim\dimen0 > \dimen2
+    %
+    % Do a \strut just to make the height of this box be normal, so the
+    % normal leading is inserted relative to the preceding line.
+    % And a page break here is fine.
+    \vtop to #1\mil{\strut\vfil}%
+    %
+    % TeX does not even consider page breaks if a penalty added to the
+    % main vertical list is 10000 or more.  But in order to see if the
+    % empty box we just added fits on the page, we must make it consider
+    % page breaks.  On the other hand, we don't want to actually break the
+    % page after the empty box.  So we use a penalty of 9999.
+    %
+    % There is an extremely small chance that TeX will actually break the
+    % page at this \penalty, if there are no other feasible breakpoints in
+    % sight.  (If the user is using lots of big @group commands, which
+    % almost-but-not-quite fill up a page, TeX will have a hard time doing
+    % good page breaking, for example.)  However, I could not construct an
+    % example where a page broke at this \penalty; if it happens in a real
+    % document, then we can reconsider our strategy.
+    \penalty9999
+    %
+    % Back up by the size of the box, whether we did a page break or not.
+    \kern -#1\mil
+    %
+    % Do not allow a page break right after this kern.
+    \nobreak
+  \fi
+}
+
+% @br   forces paragraph break
+
+\let\br = \par
+
+% @dots{} output an ellipsis using the current font.
+% We do .5em per period so that it has the same spacing in a typewriter
+% font as three actual period characters.
+%
+\def\dots{%
+  \leavevmode
+  \hbox to 1.5em{%
+    \hskip 0pt plus 0.25fil minus 0.25fil
+    .\hss.\hss.%
+    \hskip 0pt plus 0.5fil minus 0.5fil
+  }%
+}
+
+% @enddots{} is an end-of-sentence ellipsis.
+%
+\def\enddots{%
+  \leavevmode
+  \hbox to 2em{%
+    \hskip 0pt plus 0.25fil minus 0.25fil
+    .\hss.\hss.\hss.%
+    \hskip 0pt plus 0.5fil minus 0.5fil
+  }%
+  \spacefactor=3000
+}
+
+
+% @page    forces the start of a new page
+%
+\def\page{\par\vfill\supereject}
+
+% @exdent text....
+% outputs text on separate line in roman font, starting at standard page margin
+
+% This records the amount of indent in the innermost environment.
+% That's how much \exdent should take out.
+\newskip\exdentamount
+
+% This defn is used inside fill environments such as @defun.
+\def\exdent{\parsearg\exdentyyy}
+\def\exdentyyy #1{{\hfil\break\hbox{\kern -\exdentamount{\rm#1}}\hfil\break}}
+
+% This defn is used inside nofill environments such as @example.
+\def\nofillexdent{\parsearg\nofillexdentyyy}
+\def\nofillexdentyyy #1{{\advance \leftskip by -\exdentamount
+\leftline{\hskip\leftskip{\rm#1}}}}
+
+% @inmargin{WHICH}{TEXT} puts TEXT in the WHICH margin next to the current
+% paragraph.  For more general purposes, use the \margin insertion
+% class.  WHICH is `l' or `r'.
+%
+\newskip\inmarginspacing \inmarginspacing=1cm
+\def\strutdepth{\dp\strutbox}
+%
+\def\doinmargin#1#2{\strut\vadjust{%
+  \nobreak
+  \kern-\strutdepth
+  \vtop to \strutdepth{%
+    \baselineskip=\strutdepth
+    \vss
+    % if you have multiple lines of stuff to put here, you'll need to
+    % make the vbox yourself of the appropriate size.
+    \ifx#1l%
+      \llap{\ignorespaces #2\hskip\inmarginspacing}%
+    \else
+      \rlap{\hskip\hsize \hskip\inmarginspacing \ignorespaces #2}%
+    \fi
+    \null
+  }%
+}}
+\def\inleftmargin{\doinmargin l}
+\def\inrightmargin{\doinmargin r}
+%
+% @inmargin{TEXT [, RIGHT-TEXT]}
+% (if RIGHT-TEXT is given, use TEXT for left page, RIGHT-TEXT for right;
+% else use TEXT for both).
+% 
+\def\inmargin#1{\parseinmargin #1,,\finish}
+\def\parseinmargin#1,#2,#3\finish{% not perfect, but better than nothing.
+  \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #2}% 
+  \ifdim\wd0 > 0pt
+    \def\lefttext{#1}%  have both texts
+    \def\righttext{#2}%
+  \else
+    \def\lefttext{#1}%  have only one text
+    \def\righttext{#1}%
+  \fi
+  %
+  \ifodd\pageno
+    \def\temp{\inrightmargin\righttext}% odd page -> outside is right margin
+  \else
+    \def\temp{\inleftmargin\lefttext}%
+  \fi
+  \temp
+}
+
+% @include file    insert text of that file as input.
+% Allow normal characters that  we make active in the argument (a file name).
+\def\include{\begingroup
+  \catcode`\\=\other
+  \catcode`~=\other
+  \catcode`^=\other
+  \catcode`_=\other
+  \catcode`|=\other
+  \catcode`<=\other
+  \catcode`>=\other
+  \catcode`+=\other
+  \parsearg\includezzz}
+% Restore active chars for included file.
+\def\includezzz#1{\endgroup\begingroup
+  % Read the included file in a group so nested @include's work.
+  \def\thisfile{#1}%
+  \let\value=\expandablevalue
+  \input\thisfile
+\endgroup}
+
+\def\thisfile{}
+
+% @center line
+% outputs that line, centered.
+%
+\def\center{\parsearg\docenter}
+\def\docenter#1{{%
+  \ifhmode \hfil\break \fi
+  \advance\hsize by -\leftskip
+  \advance\hsize by -\rightskip
+  \line{\hfil \ignorespaces#1\unskip \hfil}%
+  \ifhmode \break \fi
+}}
+
+% @sp n   outputs n lines of vertical space
+
+\def\sp{\parsearg\spxxx}
+\def\spxxx #1{\vskip #1\baselineskip}
+
+% @comment ...line which is ignored...
+% @c is the same as @comment
+% @ignore ... @end ignore  is another way to write a comment
+
+\def\comment{\begingroup \catcode`\^^M=\other%
+\catcode`\@=\other \catcode`\{=\other \catcode`\}=\other%
+\commentxxx}
+{\catcode`\^^M=\other \gdef\commentxxx#1^^M{\endgroup}}
+
+\let\c=\comment
+
+% @paragraphindent NCHARS
+% We'll use ems for NCHARS, close enough.
+% We cannot implement @paragraphindent asis, though.
+% 
+\def\asisword{asis} % no translation, these are keywords
+\def\noneword{none}
+%
+\def\paragraphindent{\parsearg\doparagraphindent}
+\def\doparagraphindent#1{%
+  \def\temp{#1}%
+  \ifx\temp\asisword
+  \else
+    \ifx\temp\noneword
+      \defaultparindent = 0pt
+    \else
+      \defaultparindent = #1em
+    \fi
+  \fi
+  \parindent = \defaultparindent
+}
+
+% @exampleindent NCHARS
+% We'll use ems for NCHARS like @paragraphindent.
+% It seems @exampleindent asis isn't necessary, but
+% I preserve it to make it similar to @paragraphindent.
+\def\exampleindent{\parsearg\doexampleindent}
+\def\doexampleindent#1{%
+  \def\temp{#1}%
+  \ifx\temp\asisword
+  \else
+    \ifx\temp\noneword
+      \lispnarrowing = 0pt
+    \else
+      \lispnarrowing = #1em
+    \fi
+  \fi
+}
+
+% @asis just yields its argument.  Used with @table, for example.
+%
+\def\asis#1{#1}
+
+% @math outputs its argument in math mode.
+% We don't use $'s directly in the definition of \math because we need
+% to set catcodes according to plain TeX first, to allow for subscripts,
+% superscripts, special math chars, etc.
+% 
+\let\implicitmath = $%$ font-lock fix
+%
+% One complication: _ usually means subscripts, but it could also mean
+% an actual _ character, as in @math{@var{some_variable} + 1}.  So make
+% _ within @math be active (mathcode "8000), and distinguish by seeing
+% if the current family is \slfam, which is what @var uses.
+% 
+{\catcode\underChar = \active
+\gdef\mathunderscore{%
+  \catcode\underChar=\active
+  \def_{\ifnum\fam=\slfam \_\else\sb\fi}%
+}}
+%
+% Another complication: we want \\ (and @\) to output a \ character.
+% FYI, plain.tex uses \\ as a temporary control sequence (why?), but
+% this is not advertised and we don't care.  Texinfo does not
+% otherwise define @\.
+% 
+% The \mathchar is class=0=ordinary, family=7=ttfam, position=5C=\.
+\def\mathbackslash{\ifnum\fam=\ttfam \mathchar"075C \else\backslash \fi}
+%
+\def\math{%
+  \tex
+  \mathcode`\_="8000 \mathunderscore
+  \let\\ = \mathbackslash
+  \mathactive
+  \implicitmath\finishmath}
+\def\finishmath#1{#1\implicitmath\Etex}
+
+% Some active characters (such as <) are spaced differently in math.
+% We have to reset their definitions in case the @math was an
+% argument to a command which set the catcodes (such as @item or @section).
+% 
+{
+  \catcode`^ = \active
+  \catcode`< = \active
+  \catcode`> = \active
+  \catcode`+ = \active
+  \gdef\mathactive{%
+    \let^ = \ptexhat
+    \let< = \ptexless
+    \let> = \ptexgtr
+    \let+ = \ptexplus
+  }
+}
+
+% @bullet and @minus need the same treatment as @math, just above.
+\def\bullet{\implicitmath\ptexbullet\implicitmath}
+\def\minus{\implicitmath-\implicitmath}
+
+% @refill is a no-op.
+\let\refill=\relax
+
+% If working on a large document in chapters, it is convenient to
+% be able to disable indexing, cross-referencing, and contents, for test runs.
+% This is done with @novalidate (before @setfilename).
+%
+\newif\iflinks \linkstrue % by default we want the aux files.
+\let\novalidate = \linksfalse
+
+% @setfilename is done at the beginning of every texinfo file.
+% So open here the files we need to have open while reading the input.
+% This makes it possible to make a .fmt file for texinfo.
+\def\setfilename{%
+   \iflinks
+     \readauxfile
+   \fi % \openindices needs to do some work in any case.
+   \openindices
+   \fixbackslash  % Turn off hack to swallow `\input texinfo'.
+   \global\let\setfilename=\comment % Ignore extra @setfilename cmds.
+   %
+   % If texinfo.cnf is present on the system, read it.
+   % Useful for site-wide @afourpaper, etc.
+   % Just to be on the safe side, close the input stream before the \input.
+   \openin 1 texinfo.cnf
+   \ifeof1 \let\temp=\relax \else \def\temp{\input texinfo.cnf }\fi
+   \closein1
+   \temp
+   %
+   \comment % Ignore the actual filename.
+}
+
+% Called from \setfilename.
+%
+\def\openindices{%
+  \newindex{cp}%
+  \newcodeindex{fn}%
+  \newcodeindex{vr}%
+  \newcodeindex{tp}%
+  \newcodeindex{ky}%
+  \newcodeindex{pg}%
+}
+
+% @bye.
+\outer\def\bye{\pagealignmacro\tracingstats=1\ptexend}
+
+
+\message{pdf,}
+% adobe `portable' document format
+\newcount\tempnum
+\newcount\lnkcount
+\newtoks\filename
+\newcount\filenamelength
+\newcount\pgn
+\newtoks\toksA
+\newtoks\toksB
+\newtoks\toksC
+\newtoks\toksD
+\newbox\boxA
+\newcount\countA
+\newif\ifpdf
+\newif\ifpdfmakepagedest
+
+\ifx\pdfoutput\undefined
+  \pdffalse
+  \let\pdfmkdest = \gobble
+  \let\pdfurl = \gobble
+  \let\endlink = \relax
+  \let\linkcolor = \relax
+  \let\pdfmakeoutlines = \relax
+\else
+  \pdftrue
+  \pdfoutput = 1
+  \input pdfcolor
+  \def\dopdfimage#1#2#3{%
+    \def\imagewidth{#2}%
+    \def\imageheight{#3}%
+    % without \immediate, pdftex seg faults when the same image is
+    % included twice.  (Version 3.14159-pre-1.0-unofficial-20010704.)
+    \ifnum\pdftexversion < 14
+      \immediate\pdfimage
+    \else
+      \immediate\pdfximage
+    \fi
+      \ifx\empty\imagewidth\else width \imagewidth \fi
+      \ifx\empty\imageheight\else height \imageheight \fi
+      \ifnum\pdftexversion<13
+         #1.pdf%
+       \else
+         {#1.pdf}%
+       \fi
+    \ifnum\pdftexversion < 14 \else
+      \pdfrefximage \pdflastximage
+    \fi}
+  \def\pdfmkdest#1{{\normalturnoffactive \pdfdest name{#1} xyz}}
+  \def\pdfmkpgn#1{#1}
+  \let\linkcolor = \Blue  % was Cyan, but that seems light?
+  \def\endlink{\Black\pdfendlink}
+  % Adding outlines to PDF; macros for calculating structure of outlines
+  % come from Petr Olsak
+  \def\expnumber#1{\expandafter\ifx\csname#1\endcsname\relax 0%
+    \else \csname#1\endcsname \fi}
+  \def\advancenumber#1{\tempnum=\expnumber{#1}\relax
+    \advance\tempnum by1
+    \expandafter\xdef\csname#1\endcsname{\the\tempnum}}
+  \def\pdfmakeoutlines{{%
+    \openin 1 \jobname.toc
+    \ifeof 1\else\begingroup
+      \closein 1 
+      % Thanh's hack / proper braces in bookmarks  
+      \edef\mylbrace{\iftrue \string{\else}\fi}\let\{=\mylbrace
+      \edef\myrbrace{\iffalse{\else\string}\fi}\let\}=\myrbrace
+      %
+      \def\chapentry ##1##2##3{}
+      \def\secentry ##1##2##3##4{\advancenumber{chap##2}}
+      \def\subsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5{\advancenumber{sec##2.##3}}
+      \def\subsubsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5##6{\advancenumber{subsec##2.##3.##4}}
+      \let\appendixentry = \chapentry
+      \let\unnumbchapentry = \chapentry
+      \let\unnumbsecentry = \secentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsecentry = \subsecentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsubsecentry = \subsubsecentry
+      \input \jobname.toc
+      \def\chapentry ##1##2##3{%
+        \pdfoutline goto name{\pdfmkpgn{##3}}count-\expnumber{chap##2}{##1}}
+      \def\secentry ##1##2##3##4{%
+        \pdfoutline goto name{\pdfmkpgn{##4}}count-\expnumber{sec##2.##3}{##1}}
+      \def\subsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5{%
+        \pdfoutline goto name{\pdfmkpgn{##5}}count-\expnumber{subsec##2.##3.##4}{##1}}
+      \def\subsubsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5##6{%
+        \pdfoutline goto name{\pdfmkpgn{##6}}{##1}}
+      \let\appendixentry = \chapentry
+      \let\unnumbchapentry = \chapentry
+      \let\unnumbsecentry = \secentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsecentry = \subsecentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsubsecentry = \subsubsecentry
+      %
+      % Make special characters normal for writing to the pdf file.
+      % 
+      \indexnofonts
+      \let\tt=\relax
+      \turnoffactive
+      \input \jobname.toc
+    \endgroup\fi
+  }}
+  \def\makelinks #1,{%
+    \def\params{#1}\def\E{END}%
+    \ifx\params\E
+      \let\nextmakelinks=\relax
+    \else
+      \let\nextmakelinks=\makelinks
+      \ifnum\lnkcount>0,\fi
+      \picknum{#1}%
+      \startlink attr{/Border [0 0 0]} 
+        goto name{\pdfmkpgn{\the\pgn}}%
+      \linkcolor #1%
+      \advance\lnkcount by 1%
+      \endlink
+    \fi
+    \nextmakelinks
+  }
+  \def\picknum#1{\expandafter\pn#1}
+  \def\pn#1{%
+    \def\p{#1}%
+    \ifx\p\lbrace
+      \let\nextpn=\ppn
+    \else
+      \let\nextpn=\ppnn
+      \def\first{#1}
+    \fi
+    \nextpn
+  }
+  \def\ppn#1{\pgn=#1\gobble}
+  \def\ppnn{\pgn=\first}
+  \def\pdfmklnk#1{\lnkcount=0\makelinks #1,END,}
+  \def\addtokens#1#2{\edef\addtoks{\noexpand#1={\the#1#2}}\addtoks}
+  \def\skipspaces#1{\def\PP{#1}\def\D{|}%
+    \ifx\PP\D\let\nextsp\relax
+    \else\let\nextsp\skipspaces
+      \ifx\p\space\else\addtokens{\filename}{\PP}%
+        \advance\filenamelength by 1
+      \fi
+    \fi
+    \nextsp}
+  \def\getfilename#1{\filenamelength=0\expandafter\skipspaces#1|\relax}
+  \ifnum\pdftexversion < 14
+    \let \startlink \pdfannotlink
+  \else
+    \let \startlink \pdfstartlink
+  \fi
+  \def\pdfurl#1{%
+    \begingroup
+      \normalturnoffactive\def\@{@}%
+      \let\value=\expandablevalue
+      \leavevmode\Red
+      \startlink attr{/Border [0 0 0]}%
+        user{/Subtype /Link /A << /S /URI /URI (#1) >>}%
+        % #1
+    \endgroup}
+  \def\pdfgettoks#1.{\setbox\boxA=\hbox{\toksA={#1.}\toksB={}\maketoks}}
+  \def\addtokens#1#2{\edef\addtoks{\noexpand#1={\the#1#2}}\addtoks}
+  \def\adn#1{\addtokens{\toksC}{#1}\global\countA=1\let\next=\maketoks}
+  \def\poptoks#1#2|ENDTOKS|{\let\first=#1\toksD={#1}\toksA={#2}}
+  \def\maketoks{%
+    \expandafter\poptoks\the\toksA|ENDTOKS|
+    \ifx\first0\adn0
+    \else\ifx\first1\adn1 \else\ifx\first2\adn2 \else\ifx\first3\adn3
+    \else\ifx\first4\adn4 \else\ifx\first5\adn5 \else\ifx\first6\adn6
+    \else\ifx\first7\adn7 \else\ifx\first8\adn8 \else\ifx\first9\adn9 
+    \else
+      \ifnum0=\countA\else\makelink\fi
+      \ifx\first.\let\next=\done\else
+        \let\next=\maketoks
+        \addtokens{\toksB}{\the\toksD}
+        \ifx\first,\addtokens{\toksB}{\space}\fi
+      \fi
+    \fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi
+    \next}
+  \def\makelink{\addtokens{\toksB}%
+    {\noexpand\pdflink{\the\toksC}}\toksC={}\global\countA=0}
+  \def\pdflink#1{%
+    \startlink attr{/Border [0 0 0]} goto name{\pdfmkpgn{#1}}
+    \linkcolor #1\endlink}
+  \def\done{\edef\st{\global\noexpand\toksA={\the\toksB}}\st}
+\fi % \ifx\pdfoutput
+
+
+\message{fonts,}
+% Font-change commands.
+
+% Texinfo sort of supports the sans serif font style, which plain TeX does not.
+% So we set up a \sf analogous to plain's \rm, etc.
+\newfam\sffam
+\def\sf{\fam=\sffam \tensf}
+\let\li = \sf % Sometimes we call it \li, not \sf.
+
+% We don't need math for this one.
+\def\ttsl{\tenttsl}
+
+% Default leading.
+\newdimen\textleading  \textleading = 13.2pt
+
+% Set the baselineskip to #1, and the lineskip and strut size
+% correspondingly.  There is no deep meaning behind these magic numbers
+% used as factors; they just match (closely enough) what Knuth defined.
+%
+\def\lineskipfactor{.08333}
+\def\strutheightpercent{.70833}
+\def\strutdepthpercent {.29167}
+%
+\def\setleading#1{%
+  \normalbaselineskip = #1\relax
+  \normallineskip = \lineskipfactor\normalbaselineskip
+  \normalbaselines
+  \setbox\strutbox =\hbox{%
+    \vrule width0pt height\strutheightpercent\baselineskip
+                    depth \strutdepthpercent \baselineskip
+  }%
+}
+
+% Set the font macro #1 to the font named #2, adding on the
+% specified font prefix (normally `cm').
+% #3 is the font's design size, #4 is a scale factor
+\def\setfont#1#2#3#4{\font#1=\fontprefix#2#3 scaled #4}
+
+% Use cm as the default font prefix.
+% To specify the font prefix, you must define \fontprefix
+% before you read in texinfo.tex.
+\ifx\fontprefix\undefined
+\def\fontprefix{cm}
+\fi
+% Support font families that don't use the same naming scheme as CM.
+\def\rmshape{r}
+\def\rmbshape{bx}               %where the normal face is bold
+\def\bfshape{b}
+\def\bxshape{bx}
+\def\ttshape{tt}
+\def\ttbshape{tt}
+\def\ttslshape{sltt}
+\def\itshape{ti}
+\def\itbshape{bxti}
+\def\slshape{sl}
+\def\slbshape{bxsl}
+\def\sfshape{ss}
+\def\sfbshape{ss}
+\def\scshape{csc}
+\def\scbshape{csc}
+
+\newcount\mainmagstep
+\ifx\bigger\relax
+  % not really supported.
+  \mainmagstep=\magstep1
+  \setfont\textrm\rmshape{12}{1000}
+  \setfont\texttt\ttshape{12}{1000}
+\else
+  \mainmagstep=\magstephalf
+  \setfont\textrm\rmshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+  \setfont\texttt\ttshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\fi
+% Instead of cmb10, you may want to use cmbx10.
+% cmbx10 is a prettier font on its own, but cmb10
+% looks better when embedded in a line with cmr10
+% (in Bob's opinion).
+\setfont\textbf\bfshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\setfont\textit\itshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\setfont\textsl\slshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\setfont\textsf\sfshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\setfont\textsc\scshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\setfont\textttsl\ttslshape{10}{\mainmagstep}
+\font\texti=cmmi10 scaled \mainmagstep
+\font\textsy=cmsy10 scaled \mainmagstep
+
+% A few fonts for @defun, etc.
+\setfont\defbf\bxshape{10}{\magstep1} %was 1314
+\setfont\deftt\ttshape{10}{\magstep1}
+\def\df{\let\tentt=\deftt \let\tenbf = \defbf \bf}
+
+% Fonts for indices, footnotes, small examples (9pt).
+\setfont\smallrm\rmshape{9}{1000}
+\setfont\smalltt\ttshape{9}{1000}
+\setfont\smallbf\bfshape{10}{900}
+\setfont\smallit\itshape{9}{1000}
+\setfont\smallsl\slshape{9}{1000}
+\setfont\smallsf\sfshape{9}{1000}
+\setfont\smallsc\scshape{10}{900}
+\setfont\smallttsl\ttslshape{10}{900}
+\font\smalli=cmmi9
+\font\smallsy=cmsy9
+
+% Fonts for small examples (8pt).
+\setfont\smallerrm\rmshape{8}{1000}
+\setfont\smallertt\ttshape{8}{1000}
+\setfont\smallerbf\bfshape{10}{800}
+\setfont\smallerit\itshape{8}{1000}
+\setfont\smallersl\slshape{8}{1000}
+\setfont\smallersf\sfshape{8}{1000}
+\setfont\smallersc\scshape{10}{800}
+\setfont\smallerttsl\ttslshape{10}{800}
+\font\smalleri=cmmi8
+\font\smallersy=cmsy8
+
+% Fonts for title page:
+\setfont\titlerm\rmbshape{12}{\magstep3}
+\setfont\titleit\itbshape{10}{\magstep4}
+\setfont\titlesl\slbshape{10}{\magstep4}
+\setfont\titlett\ttbshape{12}{\magstep3}
+\setfont\titlettsl\ttslshape{10}{\magstep4}
+\setfont\titlesf\sfbshape{17}{\magstep1}
+\let\titlebf=\titlerm
+\setfont\titlesc\scbshape{10}{\magstep4}
+\font\titlei=cmmi12 scaled \magstep3
+\font\titlesy=cmsy10 scaled \magstep4
+\def\authorrm{\secrm}
+\def\authortt{\sectt}
+
+% Chapter (and unnumbered) fonts (17.28pt).
+\setfont\chaprm\rmbshape{12}{\magstep2}
+\setfont\chapit\itbshape{10}{\magstep3}
+\setfont\chapsl\slbshape{10}{\magstep3}
+\setfont\chaptt\ttbshape{12}{\magstep2}
+\setfont\chapttsl\ttslshape{10}{\magstep3}
+\setfont\chapsf\sfbshape{17}{1000}
+\let\chapbf=\chaprm
+\setfont\chapsc\scbshape{10}{\magstep3}
+\font\chapi=cmmi12 scaled \magstep2
+\font\chapsy=cmsy10 scaled \magstep3
+
+% Section fonts (14.4pt).
+\setfont\secrm\rmbshape{12}{\magstep1}
+\setfont\secit\itbshape{10}{\magstep2}
+\setfont\secsl\slbshape{10}{\magstep2}
+\setfont\sectt\ttbshape{12}{\magstep1}
+\setfont\secttsl\ttslshape{10}{\magstep2}
+\setfont\secsf\sfbshape{12}{\magstep1}
+\let\secbf\secrm
+\setfont\secsc\scbshape{10}{\magstep2}
+\font\seci=cmmi12 scaled \magstep1
+\font\secsy=cmsy10 scaled \magstep2
+
+% Subsection fonts (13.15pt).
+\setfont\ssecrm\rmbshape{12}{\magstephalf}
+\setfont\ssecit\itbshape{10}{1315}
+\setfont\ssecsl\slbshape{10}{1315}
+\setfont\ssectt\ttbshape{12}{\magstephalf}
+\setfont\ssecttsl\ttslshape{10}{1315}
+\setfont\ssecsf\sfbshape{12}{\magstephalf}
+\let\ssecbf\ssecrm
+\setfont\ssecsc\scbshape{10}{\magstep1}
+\font\sseci=cmmi12 scaled \magstephalf
+\font\ssecsy=cmsy10 scaled 1315
+% The smallcaps and symbol fonts should actually be scaled \magstep1.5,
+% but that is not a standard magnification.
+
+% In order for the font changes to affect most math symbols and letters,
+% we have to define the \textfont of the standard families.  Since
+% texinfo doesn't allow for producing subscripts and superscripts except
+% in the main text, we don't bother to reset \scriptfont and
+% \scriptscriptfont (which would also require loading a lot more fonts).
+%
+\def\resetmathfonts{%
+  \textfont0=\tenrm \textfont1=\teni \textfont2=\tensy
+  \textfont\itfam=\tenit \textfont\slfam=\tensl \textfont\bffam=\tenbf
+  \textfont\ttfam=\tentt \textfont\sffam=\tensf
+}
+
+% The font-changing commands redefine the meanings of \tenSTYLE, instead
+% of just \STYLE.  We do this so that font changes will continue to work
+% in math mode, where it is the current \fam that is relevant in most
+% cases, not the current font.  Plain TeX does \def\bf{\fam=\bffam
+% \tenbf}, for example.  By redefining \tenbf, we obviate the need to
+% redefine \bf itself.
+\def\textfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\textrm \let\tenit=\textit \let\tensl=\textsl
+  \let\tenbf=\textbf \let\tentt=\texttt \let\smallcaps=\textsc
+  \let\tensf=\textsf \let\teni=\texti \let\tensy=\textsy \let\tenttsl=\textttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{\textleading}}
+\def\titlefonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\titlerm \let\tenit=\titleit \let\tensl=\titlesl
+  \let\tenbf=\titlebf \let\tentt=\titlett \let\smallcaps=\titlesc
+  \let\tensf=\titlesf \let\teni=\titlei \let\tensy=\titlesy
+  \let\tenttsl=\titlettsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{25pt}}
+\def\titlefont#1{{\titlefonts\rm #1}}
+\def\chapfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\chaprm \let\tenit=\chapit \let\tensl=\chapsl
+  \let\tenbf=\chapbf \let\tentt=\chaptt \let\smallcaps=\chapsc
+  \let\tensf=\chapsf \let\teni=\chapi \let\tensy=\chapsy \let\tenttsl=\chapttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{19pt}}
+\def\secfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\secrm \let\tenit=\secit \let\tensl=\secsl
+  \let\tenbf=\secbf \let\tentt=\sectt \let\smallcaps=\secsc
+  \let\tensf=\secsf \let\teni=\seci \let\tensy=\secsy \let\tenttsl=\secttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{16pt}}
+\def\subsecfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\ssecrm \let\tenit=\ssecit \let\tensl=\ssecsl
+  \let\tenbf=\ssecbf \let\tentt=\ssectt \let\smallcaps=\ssecsc
+  \let\tensf=\ssecsf \let\teni=\sseci \let\tensy=\ssecsy \let\tenttsl=\ssecttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{15pt}}
+\let\subsubsecfonts = \subsecfonts % Maybe make sssec fonts scaled magstephalf?
+\def\smallfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\smallrm \let\tenit=\smallit \let\tensl=\smallsl
+  \let\tenbf=\smallbf \let\tentt=\smalltt \let\smallcaps=\smallsc
+  \let\tensf=\smallsf \let\teni=\smalli \let\tensy=\smallsy
+  \let\tenttsl=\smallttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{10.5pt}}
+\def\smallerfonts{%
+  \let\tenrm=\smallerrm \let\tenit=\smallerit \let\tensl=\smallersl
+  \let\tenbf=\smallerbf \let\tentt=\smallertt \let\smallcaps=\smallersc
+  \let\tensf=\smallersf \let\teni=\smalleri \let\tensy=\smallersy
+  \let\tenttsl=\smallerttsl
+  \resetmathfonts \setleading{9.5pt}}
+
+% Set the fonts to use with the @small... environments.
+\let\smallexamplefonts = \smallfonts
+
+% About \smallexamplefonts.  If we use \smallfonts (9pt), @smallexample
+% can fit this many characters:
+%   8.5x11=86   smallbook=72  a4=90  a5=69
+% If we use \smallerfonts (8pt), then we can fit this many characters:
+%   8.5x11=90+  smallbook=80  a4=90+  a5=77
+% For me, subjectively, the few extra characters that fit aren't worth
+% the additional smallness of 8pt.  So I'm making the default 9pt.
+% 
+% By the way, for comparison, here's what fits with @example (10pt):
+%   8.5x11=71  smallbook=60  a4=75  a5=58
+% 
+% I wish we used A4 paper on this side of the Atlantic.
+% 
+% --karl, 24jan03.
+
+
+% Set up the default fonts, so we can use them for creating boxes.
+%
+\textfonts
+
+% Define these so they can be easily changed for other fonts.
+\def\angleleft{$\langle$}
+\def\angleright{$\rangle$}
+
+% Count depth in font-changes, for error checks
+\newcount\fontdepth \fontdepth=0
+
+% Fonts for short table of contents.
+\setfont\shortcontrm\rmshape{12}{1000}
+\setfont\shortcontbf\bxshape{12}{1000}
+\setfont\shortcontsl\slshape{12}{1000}
+\setfont\shortconttt\ttshape{12}{1000}
+
+%% Add scribe-like font environments, plus @l for inline lisp (usually sans
+%% serif) and @ii for TeX italic
+
+% \smartitalic{ARG} outputs arg in italics, followed by an italic correction
+% unless the following character is such as not to need one.
+\def\smartitalicx{\ifx\next,\else\ifx\next-\else\ifx\next.\else\/\fi\fi\fi}
+\def\smartslanted#1{{\ifusingtt\ttsl\sl #1}\futurelet\next\smartitalicx}
+\def\smartitalic#1{{\ifusingtt\ttsl\it #1}\futurelet\next\smartitalicx}
+
+\let\i=\smartitalic
+\let\var=\smartslanted
+\let\dfn=\smartslanted
+\let\emph=\smartitalic
+\let\cite=\smartslanted
+
+\def\b#1{{\bf #1}}
+\let\strong=\b
+
+% We can't just use \exhyphenpenalty, because that only has effect at
+% the end of a paragraph.  Restore normal hyphenation at the end of the
+% group within which \nohyphenation is presumably called.
+%
+\def\nohyphenation{\hyphenchar\font = -1  \aftergroup\restorehyphenation}
+\def\restorehyphenation{\hyphenchar\font = `- }
+
+% Set sfcode to normal for the chars that usually have another value.
+% Can't use plain's \frenchspacing because it uses the `\x notation, and
+% sometimes \x has an active definition that messes things up.
+% 
+\catcode`@=11
+  \def\frenchspacing{%
+    \sfcode\dotChar  =\@m \sfcode\questChar=\@m \sfcode\exclamChar=\@m
+    \sfcode\colonChar=\@m \sfcode\semiChar =\@m \sfcode\commaChar =\@m
+  }
+\catcode`@=\other
+
+\def\t#1{%
+  {\tt \rawbackslash \frenchspacing #1}%
+  \null
+}
+\let\ttfont=\t
+\def\samp#1{`\tclose{#1}'\null}
+\setfont\keyrm\rmshape{8}{1000}
+\font\keysy=cmsy9
+\def\key#1{{\keyrm\textfont2=\keysy \leavevmode\hbox{%
+  \raise0.4pt\hbox{\angleleft}\kern-.08em\vtop{%
+    \vbox{\hrule\kern-0.4pt
+     \hbox{\raise0.4pt\hbox{\vphantom{\angleleft}}#1}}%
+    \kern-0.4pt\hrule}%
+  \kern-.06em\raise0.4pt\hbox{\angleright}}}}
+% The old definition, with no lozenge:
+%\def\key #1{{\ttsl \nohyphenation \uppercase{#1}}\null}
+\def\ctrl #1{{\tt \rawbackslash \hat}#1}
+
+% @file, @option are the same as @samp.
+\let\file=\samp
+\let\option=\samp
+
+% @code is a modification of @t,
+% which makes spaces the same size as normal in the surrounding text.
+\def\tclose#1{%
+  {%
+    % Change normal interword space to be same as for the current font.
+    \spaceskip = \fontdimen2\font
+    %
+    % Switch to typewriter.
+    \tt
+    %
+    % But `\ ' produces the large typewriter interword space.
+    \def\ {{\spaceskip = 0pt{} }}%
+    %
+    % Turn off hyphenation.
+    \nohyphenation
+    %
+    \rawbackslash
+    \frenchspacing
+    #1%
+  }%
+  \null
+}
+
+% We *must* turn on hyphenation at `-' and `_' in \code.
+% Otherwise, it is too hard to avoid overfull hboxes
+% in the Emacs manual, the Library manual, etc.
+
+% Unfortunately, TeX uses one parameter (\hyphenchar) to control
+% both hyphenation at - and hyphenation within words.
+% We must therefore turn them both off (\tclose does that)
+% and arrange explicitly to hyphenate at a dash.
+%  -- rms.
+{
+  \catcode`\-=\active
+  \catcode`\_=\active
+  %
+  \global\def\code{\begingroup
+    \catcode`\-=\active \let-\codedash
+    \catcode`\_=\active \let_\codeunder
+    \codex
+  }
+  %
+  % If we end up with any active - characters when handling the index,
+  % just treat them as a normal -.
+  \global\def\indexbreaks{\catcode`\-=\active \let-\realdash}
+}
+
+\def\realdash{-}
+\def\codedash{-\discretionary{}{}{}}
+\def\codeunder{%
+  % this is all so @math{@code{var_name}+1} can work.  In math mode, _
+  % is "active" (mathcode"8000) and \normalunderscore (or \char95, etc.)
+  % will therefore expand the active definition of _, which is us
+  % (inside @code that is), therefore an endless loop.
+  \ifusingtt{\ifmmode
+               \mathchar"075F % class 0=ordinary, family 7=ttfam, pos 0x5F=_.
+             \else\normalunderscore \fi
+             \discretionary{}{}{}}%
+            {\_}%
+}
+\def\codex #1{\tclose{#1}\endgroup}
+
+% @kbd is like @code, except that if the argument is just one @key command,
+% then @kbd has no effect.
+
+% @kbdinputstyle -- arg is `distinct' (@kbd uses slanted tty font always),
+%   `example' (@kbd uses ttsl only inside of @example and friends),
+%   or `code' (@kbd uses normal tty font always).
+\def\kbdinputstyle{\parsearg\kbdinputstylexxx}
+\def\kbdinputstylexxx#1{%
+  \def\arg{#1}%
+  \ifx\arg\worddistinct
+    \gdef\kbdexamplefont{\ttsl}\gdef\kbdfont{\ttsl}%
+  \else\ifx\arg\wordexample
+    \gdef\kbdexamplefont{\ttsl}\gdef\kbdfont{\tt}%
+  \else\ifx\arg\wordcode
+    \gdef\kbdexamplefont{\tt}\gdef\kbdfont{\tt}%
+  \else
+    \errhelp = \EMsimple
+    \errmessage{Unknown @kbdinputstyle `\arg'}%
+  \fi\fi\fi
+}
+\def\worddistinct{distinct}
+\def\wordexample{example}
+\def\wordcode{code}
+
+% Default is `distinct.'
+\kbdinputstyle distinct
+
+\def\xkey{\key}
+\def\kbdfoo#1#2#3\par{\def\one{#1}\def\three{#3}\def\threex{??}%
+\ifx\one\xkey\ifx\threex\three \key{#2}%
+\else{\tclose{\kbdfont\look}}\fi
+\else{\tclose{\kbdfont\look}}\fi}
+
+% For @url, @env, @command quotes seem unnecessary, so use \code.
+\let\url=\code
+\let\env=\code
+\let\command=\code
+
+% @uref (abbreviation for `urlref') takes an optional (comma-separated)
+% second argument specifying the text to display and an optional third
+% arg as text to display instead of (rather than in addition to) the url
+% itself.  First (mandatory) arg is the url.  Perhaps eventually put in
+% a hypertex \special here.
+%
+\def\uref#1{\douref #1,,,\finish}
+\def\douref#1,#2,#3,#4\finish{\begingroup
+  \unsepspaces
+  \pdfurl{#1}%
+  \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #3}%
+  \ifdim\wd0 > 0pt
+    \unhbox0 % third arg given, show only that
+  \else
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #2}%
+    \ifdim\wd0 > 0pt
+      \ifpdf
+        \unhbox0             % PDF: 2nd arg given, show only it
+      \else
+        \unhbox0\ (\code{#1})% DVI: 2nd arg given, show both it and url
+      \fi
+    \else
+      \code{#1}% only url given, so show it
+    \fi
+  \fi
+  \endlink
+\endgroup}
+
+% rms does not like angle brackets --karl, 17may97.
+% So now @email is just like @uref, unless we are pdf.
+% 
+%\def\email#1{\angleleft{\tt #1}\angleright}
+\ifpdf
+  \def\email#1{\doemail#1,,\finish}
+  \def\doemail#1,#2,#3\finish{\begingroup
+    \unsepspaces
+    \pdfurl{mailto:#1}%
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #2}%
+    \ifdim\wd0>0pt\unhbox0\else\code{#1}\fi
+    \endlink
+  \endgroup}
+\else
+  \let\email=\uref
+\fi
+
+% Check if we are currently using a typewriter font.  Since all the
+% Computer Modern typewriter fonts have zero interword stretch (and
+% shrink), and it is reasonable to expect all typewriter fonts to have
+% this property, we can check that font parameter.
+%
+\def\ifmonospace{\ifdim\fontdimen3\font=0pt }
+
+% Typeset a dimension, e.g., `in' or `pt'.  The only reason for the
+% argument is to make the input look right: @dmn{pt} instead of @dmn{}pt.
+%
+\def\dmn#1{\thinspace #1}
+
+\def\kbd#1{\def\look{#1}\expandafter\kbdfoo\look??\par}
+
+% @l was never documented to mean ``switch to the Lisp font'',
+% and it is not used as such in any manual I can find.  We need it for
+% Polish suppressed-l.  --karl, 22sep96.
+%\def\l#1{{\li #1}\null}
+
+% Explicit font changes: @r, @sc, undocumented @ii.
+\def\r#1{{\rm #1}}              % roman font
+\def\sc#1{{\smallcaps#1}}       % smallcaps font
+\def\ii#1{{\it #1}}             % italic font
+
+% @acronym downcases the argument and prints in smallcaps.
+\def\acronym#1{{\smallcaps \lowercase{#1}}}
+
+% @pounds{} is a sterling sign.
+\def\pounds{{\it\$}}
+
+
+\message{page headings,}
+
+\newskip\titlepagetopglue \titlepagetopglue = 1.5in
+\newskip\titlepagebottomglue \titlepagebottomglue = 2pc
+
+% First the title page.  Must do @settitle before @titlepage.
+\newif\ifseenauthor
+\newif\iffinishedtitlepage
+
+% Do an implicit @contents or @shortcontents after @end titlepage if the
+% user says @setcontentsaftertitlepage or @setshortcontentsaftertitlepage.
+%
+\newif\ifsetcontentsaftertitlepage
+ \let\setcontentsaftertitlepage = \setcontentsaftertitlepagetrue
+\newif\ifsetshortcontentsaftertitlepage
+ \let\setshortcontentsaftertitlepage = \setshortcontentsaftertitlepagetrue
+
+\def\shorttitlepage{\parsearg\shorttitlepagezzz}
+\def\shorttitlepagezzz #1{\begingroup\hbox{}\vskip 1.5in \chaprm \centerline{#1}%
+        \endgroup\page\hbox{}\page}
+
+\def\titlepage{\begingroup \parindent=0pt \textfonts
+   \let\subtitlerm=\tenrm
+   \def\subtitlefont{\subtitlerm \normalbaselineskip = 13pt \normalbaselines}%
+   %
+   \def\authorfont{\authorrm \normalbaselineskip = 16pt \normalbaselines
+                   \let\tt=\authortt}%
+   %
+   % Leave some space at the very top of the page.
+   \vglue\titlepagetopglue
+   %
+   % Now you can print the title using @title.
+   \def\title{\parsearg\titlezzz}%
+   \def\titlezzz##1{\leftline{\titlefonts\rm ##1}
+                    % print a rule at the page bottom also.
+                    \finishedtitlepagefalse
+                    \vskip4pt \hrule height 4pt width \hsize \vskip4pt}%
+   % No rule at page bottom unless we print one at the top with @title.
+   \finishedtitlepagetrue
+   %
+   % Now you can put text using @subtitle.
+   \def\subtitle{\parsearg\subtitlezzz}%
+   \def\subtitlezzz##1{{\subtitlefont \rightline{##1}}}%
+   %
+   % @author should come last, but may come many times.
+   \def\author{\parsearg\authorzzz}%
+   \def\authorzzz##1{\ifseenauthor\else\vskip 0pt plus 1filll\seenauthortrue\fi
+      {\authorfont \leftline{##1}}}%
+   %
+   % Most title ``pages'' are actually two pages long, with space
+   % at the top of the second.  We don't want the ragged left on the second.
+   \let\oldpage = \page
+   \def\page{%
+      \iffinishedtitlepage\else
+         \finishtitlepage
+      \fi
+      \oldpage
+      \let\page = \oldpage
+      \hbox{}}%
+%   \def\page{\oldpage \hbox{}}
+}
+
+\def\Etitlepage{%
+   \iffinishedtitlepage\else
+      \finishtitlepage
+   \fi
+   % It is important to do the page break before ending the group,
+   % because the headline and footline are only empty inside the group.
+   % If we use the new definition of \page, we always get a blank page
+   % after the title page, which we certainly don't want.
+   \oldpage
+   \endgroup
+   %
+   % Need this before the \...aftertitlepage checks so that if they are
+   % in effect the toc pages will come out with page numbers.
+   \HEADINGSon
+   %
+   % If they want short, they certainly want long too.
+   \ifsetshortcontentsaftertitlepage
+     \shortcontents
+     \contents
+     \global\let\shortcontents = \relax
+     \global\let\contents = \relax
+   \fi
+   %
+   \ifsetcontentsaftertitlepage
+     \contents
+     \global\let\contents = \relax
+     \global\let\shortcontents = \relax
+   \fi
+}
+
+\def\finishtitlepage{%
+   \vskip4pt \hrule height 2pt width \hsize
+   \vskip\titlepagebottomglue
+   \finishedtitlepagetrue
+}
+
+%%% Set up page headings and footings.
+
+\let\thispage=\folio
+
+\newtoks\evenheadline    % headline on even pages
+\newtoks\oddheadline     % headline on odd pages
+\newtoks\evenfootline    % footline on even pages
+\newtoks\oddfootline     % footline on odd pages
+
+% Now make Tex use those variables
+\headline={{\textfonts\rm \ifodd\pageno \the\oddheadline
+                            \else \the\evenheadline \fi}}
+\footline={{\textfonts\rm \ifodd\pageno \the\oddfootline
+                            \else \the\evenfootline \fi}\HEADINGShook}
+\let\HEADINGShook=\relax
+
+% Commands to set those variables.
+% For example, this is what  @headings on  does
+% @evenheading @thistitle|@thispage|@thischapter
+% @oddheading @thischapter|@thispage|@thistitle
+% @evenfooting @thisfile||
+% @oddfooting ||@thisfile
+
+\def\evenheading{\parsearg\evenheadingxxx}
+\def\oddheading{\parsearg\oddheadingxxx}
+\def\everyheading{\parsearg\everyheadingxxx}
+
+\def\evenfooting{\parsearg\evenfootingxxx}
+\def\oddfooting{\parsearg\oddfootingxxx}
+\def\everyfooting{\parsearg\everyfootingxxx}
+
+{\catcode`\@=0 %
+
+\gdef\evenheadingxxx #1{\evenheadingyyy #1@|@|@|@|\finish}
+\gdef\evenheadingyyy #1@|#2@|#3@|#4\finish{%
+\global\evenheadline={\rlap{\centerline{#2}}\line{#1\hfil#3}}}
+
+\gdef\oddheadingxxx #1{\oddheadingyyy #1@|@|@|@|\finish}
+\gdef\oddheadingyyy #1@|#2@|#3@|#4\finish{%
+\global\oddheadline={\rlap{\centerline{#2}}\line{#1\hfil#3}}}
+
+\gdef\everyheadingxxx#1{\oddheadingxxx{#1}\evenheadingxxx{#1}}%
+
+\gdef\evenfootingxxx #1{\evenfootingyyy #1@|@|@|@|\finish}
+\gdef\evenfootingyyy #1@|#2@|#3@|#4\finish{%
+\global\evenfootline={\rlap{\centerline{#2}}\line{#1\hfil#3}}}
+
+\gdef\oddfootingxxx #1{\oddfootingyyy #1@|@|@|@|\finish}
+\gdef\oddfootingyyy #1@|#2@|#3@|#4\finish{%
+  \global\oddfootline = {\rlap{\centerline{#2}}\line{#1\hfil#3}}%
+  %
+  % Leave some space for the footline.  Hopefully ok to assume
+  % @evenfooting will not be used by itself.
+  \global\advance\pageheight by -\baselineskip
+  \global\advance\vsize by -\baselineskip
+}
+
+\gdef\everyfootingxxx#1{\oddfootingxxx{#1}\evenfootingxxx{#1}}
+%
+}% unbind the catcode of @.
+
+% @headings double      turns headings on for double-sided printing.
+% @headings single      turns headings on for single-sided printing.
+% @headings off         turns them off.
+% @headings on          same as @headings double, retained for compatibility.
+% @headings after       turns on double-sided headings after this page.
+% @headings doubleafter turns on double-sided headings after this page.
+% @headings singleafter turns on single-sided headings after this page.
+% By default, they are off at the start of a document,
+% and turned `on' after @end titlepage.
+
+\def\headings #1 {\csname HEADINGS#1\endcsname}
+
+\def\HEADINGSoff{
+\global\evenheadline={\hfil} \global\evenfootline={\hfil}
+\global\oddheadline={\hfil} \global\oddfootline={\hfil}}
+\HEADINGSoff
+% When we turn headings on, set the page number to 1.
+% For double-sided printing, put current file name in lower left corner,
+% chapter name on inside top of right hand pages, document
+% title on inside top of left hand pages, and page numbers on outside top
+% edge of all pages.
+\def\HEADINGSdouble{
+\global\pageno=1
+\global\evenfootline={\hfil}
+\global\oddfootline={\hfil}
+\global\evenheadline={\line{\folio\hfil\thistitle}}
+\global\oddheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chapoddpage
+}
+\let\contentsalignmacro = \chappager
+
+% For single-sided printing, chapter title goes across top left of page,
+% page number on top right.
+\def\HEADINGSsingle{
+\global\pageno=1
+\global\evenfootline={\hfil}
+\global\oddfootline={\hfil}
+\global\evenheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\oddheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chappager
+}
+\def\HEADINGSon{\HEADINGSdouble}
+
+\def\HEADINGSafter{\let\HEADINGShook=\HEADINGSdoublex}
+\let\HEADINGSdoubleafter=\HEADINGSafter
+\def\HEADINGSdoublex{%
+\global\evenfootline={\hfil}
+\global\oddfootline={\hfil}
+\global\evenheadline={\line{\folio\hfil\thistitle}}
+\global\oddheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chapoddpage
+}
+
+\def\HEADINGSsingleafter{\let\HEADINGShook=\HEADINGSsinglex}
+\def\HEADINGSsinglex{%
+\global\evenfootline={\hfil}
+\global\oddfootline={\hfil}
+\global\evenheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\oddheadline={\line{\thischapter\hfil\folio}}
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chappager
+}
+
+% Subroutines used in generating headings
+% This produces Day Month Year style of output.
+% Only define if not already defined, in case a txi-??.tex file has set
+% up a different format (e.g., txi-cs.tex does this).
+\ifx\today\undefined
+\def\today{%
+  \number\day\space
+  \ifcase\month
+  \or\putwordMJan\or\putwordMFeb\or\putwordMMar\or\putwordMApr
+  \or\putwordMMay\or\putwordMJun\or\putwordMJul\or\putwordMAug
+  \or\putwordMSep\or\putwordMOct\or\putwordMNov\or\putwordMDec
+  \fi
+  \space\number\year}
+\fi
+
+% @settitle line...  specifies the title of the document, for headings.
+% It generates no output of its own.
+\def\thistitle{\putwordNoTitle}
+\def\settitle{\parsearg\settitlezzz}
+\def\settitlezzz #1{\gdef\thistitle{#1}}
+
+
+\message{tables,}
+% Tables -- @table, @ftable, @vtable, @item(x), @kitem(x), @xitem(x).
+
+% default indentation of table text
+\newdimen\tableindent \tableindent=.8in
+% default indentation of @itemize and @enumerate text
+\newdimen\itemindent  \itemindent=.3in
+% margin between end of table item and start of table text.
+\newdimen\itemmargin  \itemmargin=.1in
+
+% used internally for \itemindent minus \itemmargin
+\newdimen\itemmax
+
+% Note @table, @vtable, and @vtable define @item, @itemx, etc., with
+% these defs.
+% They also define \itemindex
+% to index the item name in whatever manner is desired (perhaps none).
+
+\newif\ifitemxneedsnegativevskip
+
+\def\itemxpar{\par\ifitemxneedsnegativevskip\nobreak\vskip-\parskip\nobreak\fi}
+
+\def\internalBitem{\smallbreak \parsearg\itemzzz}
+\def\internalBitemx{\itemxpar \parsearg\itemzzz}
+
+\def\internalBxitem "#1"{\def\xitemsubtopix{#1} \smallbreak \parsearg\xitemzzz}
+\def\internalBxitemx "#1"{\def\xitemsubtopix{#1} \itemxpar \parsearg\xitemzzz}
+
+\def\internalBkitem{\smallbreak \parsearg\kitemzzz}
+\def\internalBkitemx{\itemxpar \parsearg\kitemzzz}
+
+\def\kitemzzz #1{\dosubind {kw}{\code{#1}}{for {\bf \lastfunction}}%
+                 \itemzzz {#1}}
+
+\def\xitemzzz #1{\dosubind {kw}{\code{#1}}{for {\bf \xitemsubtopic}}%
+                 \itemzzz {#1}}
+
+\def\itemzzz #1{\begingroup %
+  \advance\hsize by -\rightskip
+  \advance\hsize by -\tableindent
+  \setbox0=\hbox{\itemfont{#1}}%
+  \itemindex{#1}%
+  \nobreak % This prevents a break before @itemx.
+  %
+  % If the item text does not fit in the space we have, put it on a line
+  % by itself, and do not allow a page break either before or after that
+  % line.  We do not start a paragraph here because then if the next
+  % command is, e.g., @kindex, the whatsit would get put into the
+  % horizontal list on a line by itself, resulting in extra blank space.
+  \ifdim \wd0>\itemmax
+    %
+    % Make this a paragraph so we get the \parskip glue and wrapping,
+    % but leave it ragged-right.
+    \begingroup
+      \advance\leftskip by-\tableindent
+      \advance\hsize by\tableindent
+      \advance\rightskip by0pt plus1fil
+      \leavevmode\unhbox0\par
+    \endgroup
+    %
+    % We're going to be starting a paragraph, but we don't want the
+    % \parskip glue -- logically it's part of the @item we just started.
+    \nobreak \vskip-\parskip
+    %
+    % Stop a page break at the \parskip glue coming up.  (Unfortunately
+    % we can't prevent a possible page break at the following
+    % \baselineskip glue.)  However, if what follows is an environment
+    % such as @example, there will be no \parskip glue; then
+    % the negative vskip we just would cause the example and the item to
+    % crash together.  So we use this bizarre value of 10001 as a signal
+    % to \aboveenvbreak to insert \parskip glue after all.
+    % (Possibly there are other commands that could be followed by
+    % @example which need the same treatment, but not section titles; or
+    % maybe section titles are the only special case and they should be
+    % penalty 10001...)
+    \penalty 10001
+    \endgroup
+    \itemxneedsnegativevskipfalse
+  \else
+    % The item text fits into the space.  Start a paragraph, so that the
+    % following text (if any) will end up on the same line.
+    \noindent
+    % Do this with kerns and \unhbox so that if there is a footnote in
+    % the item text, it can migrate to the main vertical list and
+    % eventually be printed.
+    \nobreak\kern-\tableindent
+    \dimen0 = \itemmax  \advance\dimen0 by \itemmargin \advance\dimen0 by -\wd0
+    \unhbox0
+    \nobreak\kern\dimen0
+    \endgroup
+    \itemxneedsnegativevskiptrue
+  \fi
+}
+
+\def\item{\errmessage{@item while not in a table}}
+\def\itemx{\errmessage{@itemx while not in a table}}
+\def\kitem{\errmessage{@kitem while not in a table}}
+\def\kitemx{\errmessage{@kitemx while not in a table}}
+\def\xitem{\errmessage{@xitem while not in a table}}
+\def\xitemx{\errmessage{@xitemx while not in a table}}
+
+% Contains a kludge to get @end[description] to work.
+\def\description{\tablez{\dontindex}{1}{}{}{}{}}
+
+% @table, @ftable, @vtable.
+\def\table{\begingroup\inENV\obeylines\obeyspaces\tablex}
+{\obeylines\obeyspaces%
+\gdef\tablex #1^^M{%
+\tabley\dontindex#1        \endtabley}}
+
+\def\ftable{\begingroup\inENV\obeylines\obeyspaces\ftablex}
+{\obeylines\obeyspaces%
+\gdef\ftablex #1^^M{%
+\tabley\fnitemindex#1        \endtabley
+\def\Eftable{\endgraf\afterenvbreak\endgroup}%
+\let\Etable=\relax}}
+
+\def\vtable{\begingroup\inENV\obeylines\obeyspaces\vtablex}
+{\obeylines\obeyspaces%
+\gdef\vtablex #1^^M{%
+\tabley\vritemindex#1        \endtabley
+\def\Evtable{\endgraf\afterenvbreak\endgroup}%
+\let\Etable=\relax}}
+
+\def\dontindex #1{}
+\def\fnitemindex #1{\doind {fn}{\code{#1}}}%
+\def\vritemindex #1{\doind {vr}{\code{#1}}}%
+
+{\obeyspaces %
+\gdef\tabley#1#2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7\endtabley{\endgroup%
+\tablez{#1}{#2}{#3}{#4}{#5}{#6}}}
+
+\def\tablez #1#2#3#4#5#6{%
+\aboveenvbreak %
+\begingroup %
+\def\Edescription{\Etable}% Necessary kludge.
+\let\itemindex=#1%
+\ifnum 0#3>0 \advance \leftskip by #3\mil \fi %
+\ifnum 0#4>0 \tableindent=#4\mil \fi %
+\ifnum 0#5>0 \advance \rightskip by #5\mil \fi %
+\def\itemfont{#2}%
+\itemmax=\tableindent %
+\advance \itemmax by -\itemmargin %
+\advance \leftskip by \tableindent %
+\exdentamount=\tableindent
+\parindent = 0pt
+\parskip = \smallskipamount
+\ifdim \parskip=0pt \parskip=2pt \fi%
+\def\Etable{\endgraf\afterenvbreak\endgroup}%
+\let\item = \internalBitem %
+\let\itemx = \internalBitemx %
+\let\kitem = \internalBkitem %
+\let\kitemx = \internalBkitemx %
+\let\xitem = \internalBxitem %
+\let\xitemx = \internalBxitemx %
+}
+
+% This is the counter used by @enumerate, which is really @itemize
+
+\newcount \itemno
+
+\def\itemize{\parsearg\itemizezzz}
+
+\def\itemizezzz #1{%
+  \begingroup % ended by the @end itemize
+  \itemizey {#1}{\Eitemize}
+}
+
+\def\itemizey #1#2{%
+\aboveenvbreak %
+\itemmax=\itemindent %
+\advance \itemmax by -\itemmargin %
+\advance \leftskip by \itemindent %
+\exdentamount=\itemindent
+\parindent = 0pt %
+\parskip = \smallskipamount %
+\ifdim \parskip=0pt \parskip=2pt \fi%
+\def#2{\endgraf\afterenvbreak\endgroup}%
+\def\itemcontents{#1}%
+\let\item=\itemizeitem}
+
+% \splitoff TOKENS\endmark defines \first to be the first token in
+% TOKENS, and \rest to be the remainder.
+%
+\def\splitoff#1#2\endmark{\def\first{#1}\def\rest{#2}}%
+
+% Allow an optional argument of an uppercase letter, lowercase letter,
+% or number, to specify the first label in the enumerated list.  No
+% argument is the same as `1'.
+%
+\def\enumerate{\parsearg\enumeratezzz}
+\def\enumeratezzz #1{\enumeratey #1  \endenumeratey}
+\def\enumeratey #1 #2\endenumeratey{%
+  \begingroup % ended by the @end enumerate
+  %
+  % If we were given no argument, pretend we were given `1'.
+  \def\thearg{#1}%
+  \ifx\thearg\empty \def\thearg{1}\fi
+  %
+  % Detect if the argument is a single token.  If so, it might be a
+  % letter.  Otherwise, the only valid thing it can be is a number.
+  % (We will always have one token, because of the test we just made.
+  % This is a good thing, since \splitoff doesn't work given nothing at
+  % all -- the first parameter is undelimited.)
+  \expandafter\splitoff\thearg\endmark
+  \ifx\rest\empty
+    % Only one token in the argument.  It could still be anything.
+    % A ``lowercase letter'' is one whose \lccode is nonzero.
+    % An ``uppercase letter'' is one whose \lccode is both nonzero, and
+    %   not equal to itself.
+    % Otherwise, we assume it's a number.
+    %
+    % We need the \relax at the end of the \ifnum lines to stop TeX from
+    % continuing to look for a <number>.
+    %
+    \ifnum\lccode\expandafter`\thearg=0\relax
+      \numericenumerate % a number (we hope)
+    \else
+      % It's a letter.
+      \ifnum\lccode\expandafter`\thearg=\expandafter`\thearg\relax
+        \lowercaseenumerate % lowercase letter
+      \else
+        \uppercaseenumerate % uppercase letter
+      \fi
+    \fi
+  \else
+    % Multiple tokens in the argument.  We hope it's a number.
+    \numericenumerate
+  \fi
+}
+
+% An @enumerate whose labels are integers.  The starting integer is
+% given in \thearg.
+%
+\def\numericenumerate{%
+  \itemno = \thearg
+  \startenumeration{\the\itemno}%
+}
+
+% The starting (lowercase) letter is in \thearg.
+\def\lowercaseenumerate{%
+  \itemno = \expandafter`\thearg
+  \startenumeration{%
+    % Be sure we're not beyond the end of the alphabet.
+    \ifnum\itemno=0
+      \errmessage{No more lowercase letters in @enumerate; get a bigger
+                  alphabet}%
+    \fi
+    \char\lccode\itemno
+  }%
+}
+
+% The starting (uppercase) letter is in \thearg.
+\def\uppercaseenumerate{%
+  \itemno = \expandafter`\thearg
+  \startenumeration{%
+    % Be sure we're not beyond the end of the alphabet.
+    \ifnum\itemno=0
+      \errmessage{No more uppercase letters in @enumerate; get a bigger
+                  alphabet}
+    \fi
+    \char\uccode\itemno
+  }%
+}
+
+% Call itemizey, adding a period to the first argument and supplying the
+% common last two arguments.  Also subtract one from the initial value in
+% \itemno, since @item increments \itemno.
+%
+\def\startenumeration#1{%
+  \advance\itemno by -1
+  \itemizey{#1.}\Eenumerate\flushcr
+}
+
+% @alphaenumerate and @capsenumerate are abbreviations for giving an arg
+% to @enumerate.
+%
+\def\alphaenumerate{\enumerate{a}}
+\def\capsenumerate{\enumerate{A}}
+\def\Ealphaenumerate{\Eenumerate}
+\def\Ecapsenumerate{\Eenumerate}
+
+% Definition of @item while inside @itemize.
+
+\def\itemizeitem{%
+\advance\itemno by 1
+{\let\par=\endgraf \smallbreak}%
+\ifhmode \errmessage{In hmode at itemizeitem}\fi
+{\parskip=0in \hskip 0pt
+\hbox to 0pt{\hss \itemcontents\hskip \itemmargin}%
+\vadjust{\penalty 1200}}%
+\flushcr}
+
+% @multitable macros
+% Amy Hendrickson, 8/18/94, 3/6/96
+%
+% @multitable ... @end multitable will make as many columns as desired.
+% Contents of each column will wrap at width given in preamble.  Width
+% can be specified either with sample text given in a template line,
+% or in percent of \hsize, the current width of text on page.
+
+% Table can continue over pages but will only break between lines.
+
+% To make preamble:
+%
+% Either define widths of columns in terms of percent of \hsize:
+%   @multitable @columnfractions .25 .3 .45
+%   @item ...
+%
+%   Numbers following @columnfractions are the percent of the total
+%   current hsize to be used for each column. You may use as many
+%   columns as desired.
+
+
+% Or use a template:
+%   @multitable {Column 1 template} {Column 2 template} {Column 3 template}
+%   @item ...
+%   using the widest term desired in each column.
+%
+% For those who want to use more than one line's worth of words in
+% the preamble, break the line within one argument and it
+% will parse correctly, i.e.,
+%
+%     @multitable {Column 1 template} {Column 2 template} {Column 3
+%      template}
+% Not:
+%     @multitable {Column 1 template} {Column 2 template}
+%      {Column 3 template}
+
+% Each new table line starts with @item, each subsequent new column
+% starts with @tab. Empty columns may be produced by supplying @tab's
+% with nothing between them for as many times as empty columns are needed,
+% ie, @tab@tab@tab will produce two empty columns.
+
+% @item, @tab, @multitable or @end multitable do not need to be on their
+% own lines, but it will not hurt if they are.
+
+% Sample multitable:
+
+%   @multitable {Column 1 template} {Column 2 template} {Column 3 template}
+%   @item first col stuff @tab second col stuff @tab third col
+%   @item
+%   first col stuff
+%   @tab
+%   second col stuff
+%   @tab
+%   third col
+%   @item first col stuff @tab second col stuff
+%   @tab Many paragraphs of text may be used in any column.
+%
+%         They will wrap at the width determined by the template.
+%   @item@tab@tab This will be in third column.
+%   @end multitable
+
+% Default dimensions may be reset by user.
+% @multitableparskip is vertical space between paragraphs in table.
+% @multitableparindent is paragraph indent in table.
+% @multitablecolmargin is horizontal space to be left between columns.
+% @multitablelinespace is space to leave between table items, baseline
+%                                                            to baseline.
+%   0pt means it depends on current normal line spacing.
+%
+\newskip\multitableparskip
+\newskip\multitableparindent
+\newdimen\multitablecolspace
+\newskip\multitablelinespace
+\multitableparskip=0pt
+\multitableparindent=6pt
+\multitablecolspace=12pt
+\multitablelinespace=0pt
+
+% Macros used to set up halign preamble:
+%
+\let\endsetuptable\relax
+\def\xendsetuptable{\endsetuptable}
+\let\columnfractions\relax
+\def\xcolumnfractions{\columnfractions}
+\newif\ifsetpercent
+
+% #1 is the part of the @columnfraction before the decimal point, which
+% is presumably either 0 or the empty string (but we don't check, we
+% just throw it away).  #2 is the decimal part, which we use as the
+% percent of \hsize for this column.
+\def\pickupwholefraction#1.#2 {%
+  \global\advance\colcount by 1
+  \expandafter\xdef\csname col\the\colcount\endcsname{.#2\hsize}%
+  \setuptable
+}
+
+\newcount\colcount
+\def\setuptable#1{%
+  \def\firstarg{#1}%
+  \ifx\firstarg\xendsetuptable
+    \let\go = \relax
+  \else
+    \ifx\firstarg\xcolumnfractions
+      \global\setpercenttrue
+    \else
+      \ifsetpercent
+         \let\go\pickupwholefraction
+      \else
+         \global\advance\colcount by 1
+         \setbox0=\hbox{#1\unskip\space}% Add a normal word space as a
+                   % separator; typically that is always in the input, anyway.
+         \expandafter\xdef\csname col\the\colcount\endcsname{\the\wd0}%
+      \fi
+    \fi
+    \ifx\go\pickupwholefraction
+      % Put the argument back for the \pickupwholefraction call, so
+      % we'll always have a period there to be parsed.
+      \def\go{\pickupwholefraction#1}%
+    \else
+      \let\go = \setuptable
+    \fi%
+  \fi
+  \go
+}
+
+% @multitable ... @end multitable definitions:
+%
+\def\multitable{\parsearg\dotable}
+\def\dotable#1{\bgroup
+  \vskip\parskip
+  \let\item=\crcrwithfootnotes
+  % A \tab used to include \hskip1sp.  But then the space in a template
+  % line is not enough.  That is bad.  So let's go back to just & until
+  % we encounter the problem it was intended to solve again.  --karl,
+  % nathan@acm.org, 20apr99.
+  \let\tab=&%
+  \let\startfootins=\startsavedfootnote
+  \tolerance=9500
+  \hbadness=9500
+  \setmultitablespacing
+  \parskip=\multitableparskip
+  \parindent=\multitableparindent
+  \overfullrule=0pt
+  \global\colcount=0
+  \def\Emultitable{%
+    \global\setpercentfalse
+    \crcrwithfootnotes\crcr
+    \egroup\egroup
+  }%
+  %
+  % To parse everything between @multitable and @item:
+  \setuptable#1 \endsetuptable
+  %
+  % \everycr will reset column counter, \colcount, at the end of
+  % each line. Every column entry will cause \colcount to advance by one.
+  % The table preamble
+  % looks at the current \colcount to find the correct column width.
+  \everycr{\noalign{%
+  %
+  % \filbreak%% keeps underfull box messages off when table breaks over pages.
+  % Maybe so, but it also creates really weird page breaks when the table
+  % breaks over pages. Wouldn't \vfil be better?  Wait until the problem
+  % manifests itself, so it can be fixed for real --karl.
+    \global\colcount=0\relax}}%
+  %
+  % This preamble sets up a generic column definition, which will
+  % be used as many times as user calls for columns.
+  % \vtop will set a single line and will also let text wrap and
+  % continue for many paragraphs if desired.
+  \halign\bgroup&\global\advance\colcount by 1\relax
+    \multistrut\vtop{\hsize=\expandafter\csname col\the\colcount\endcsname
+  %
+  % In order to keep entries from bumping into each other
+  % we will add a \leftskip of \multitablecolspace to all columns after
+  % the first one.
+  %
+  % If a template has been used, we will add \multitablecolspace
+  % to the width of each template entry.
+  %
+  % If the user has set preamble in terms of percent of \hsize we will
+  % use that dimension as the width of the column, and the \leftskip
+  % will keep entries from bumping into each other.  Table will start at
+  % left margin and final column will justify at right margin.
+  %
+  % Make sure we don't inherit \rightskip from the outer environment.
+  \rightskip=0pt
+  \ifnum\colcount=1
+    % The first column will be indented with the surrounding text.
+    \advance\hsize by\leftskip
+  \else
+    \ifsetpercent \else
+      % If user has not set preamble in terms of percent of \hsize
+      % we will advance \hsize by \multitablecolspace.
+      \advance\hsize by \multitablecolspace
+    \fi
+   % In either case we will make \leftskip=\multitablecolspace:
+  \leftskip=\multitablecolspace
+  \fi
+  % Ignoring space at the beginning and end avoids an occasional spurious
+  % blank line, when TeX decides to break the line at the space before the
+  % box from the multistrut, so the strut ends up on a line by itself.
+  % For example:
+  % @multitable @columnfractions .11 .89
+  % @item @code{#}
+  % @tab Legal holiday which is valid in major parts of the whole country.
+  % Is automatically provided with highlighting sequences respectively marking
+  % characters.
+  \noindent\ignorespaces##\unskip\multistrut}\cr
+}
+
+\def\setmultitablespacing{% test to see if user has set \multitablelinespace.
+% If so, do nothing. If not, give it an appropriate dimension based on
+% current baselineskip.
+\ifdim\multitablelinespace=0pt
+\setbox0=\vbox{X}\global\multitablelinespace=\the\baselineskip
+\global\advance\multitablelinespace by-\ht0
+%% strut to put in table in case some entry doesn't have descenders,
+%% to keep lines equally spaced
+\let\multistrut = \strut
+\else
+%% FIXME: what is \box0 supposed to be?
+\gdef\multistrut{\vrule height\multitablelinespace depth\dp0
+width0pt\relax} \fi
+%% Test to see if parskip is larger than space between lines of
+%% table. If not, do nothing.
+%%        If so, set to same dimension as multitablelinespace.
+\ifdim\multitableparskip>\multitablelinespace
+\global\multitableparskip=\multitablelinespace
+\global\advance\multitableparskip-7pt %% to keep parskip somewhat smaller
+                                      %% than skip between lines in the table.
+\fi%
+\ifdim\multitableparskip=0pt
+\global\multitableparskip=\multitablelinespace
+\global\advance\multitableparskip-7pt %% to keep parskip somewhat smaller
+                                      %% than skip between lines in the table.
+\fi}
+
+% In case a @footnote appears inside an alignment, save the footnote
+% text to a box and make the \insert when a row of the table is
+% finished.  Otherwise, the insertion is lost, it never migrates to the
+% main vertical list.  --kasal, 22jan03.
+%
+\newbox\savedfootnotes
+%
+% \dotable \let's \startfootins to this, so that \dofootnote will call
+% it instead of starting the insertion right away.
+\def\startsavedfootnote{%
+  \global\setbox\savedfootnotes = \vbox\bgroup
+    \unvbox\savedfootnotes
+}
+\def\crcrwithfootnotes{%
+  \crcr
+  \ifvoid\savedfootnotes \else
+    \noalign{\insert\footins{\box\savedfootnotes}}%
+  \fi
+}
+
+\message{conditionals,}
+% Prevent errors for section commands.
+% Used in @ignore and in failing conditionals.
+\def\ignoresections{%
+  \let\chapter=\relax
+  \let\unnumbered=\relax
+  \let\top=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsec=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsection=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsubsec=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsubsection=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsubsubsec=\relax
+  \let\unnumberedsubsubsection=\relax
+  \let\section=\relax
+  \let\subsec=\relax
+  \let\subsubsec=\relax
+  \let\subsection=\relax
+  \let\subsubsection=\relax
+  \let\appendix=\relax
+  \let\appendixsec=\relax
+  \let\appendixsection=\relax
+  \let\appendixsubsec=\relax
+  \let\appendixsubsection=\relax
+  \let\appendixsubsubsec=\relax
+  \let\appendixsubsubsection=\relax
+  \let\contents=\relax
+  \let\smallbook=\relax
+  \let\titlepage=\relax
+}
+
+% Used in nested conditionals, where we have to parse the Texinfo source
+% and so want to turn off most commands, in case they are used
+% incorrectly.
+%
+% We use \empty instead of \relax for the @def... commands, so that \end
+% doesn't throw an error.  For instance:
+% @ignore
+% @deffn ...
+% @end deffn
+% @end ignore
+% 
+% The @end deffn is going to get expanded, because we're trying to allow
+% nested conditionals.  But we don't want to expand the actual @deffn,
+% since it might be syntactically correct and intended to be ignored.
+% Since \end checks for \relax, using \empty does not cause an error.
+% 
+\def\ignoremorecommands{%
+  \let\defcodeindex = \relax
+  \let\defcv = \empty
+  \let\defcvx = \empty
+  \let\Edefcv = \empty
+  \let\deffn = \empty
+  \let\deffnx = \empty
+  \let\Edeffn = \empty
+  \let\defindex = \relax
+  \let\defivar = \empty
+  \let\defivarx = \empty
+  \let\Edefivar = \empty
+  \let\defmac = \empty
+  \let\defmacx = \empty
+  \let\Edefmac = \empty
+  \let\defmethod = \empty
+  \let\defmethodx = \empty
+  \let\Edefmethod = \empty
+  \let\defop = \empty
+  \let\defopx = \empty
+  \let\Edefop = \empty
+  \let\defopt = \empty
+  \let\defoptx = \empty
+  \let\Edefopt = \empty
+  \let\defspec = \empty
+  \let\defspecx = \empty
+  \let\Edefspec = \empty
+  \let\deftp = \empty
+  \let\deftpx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftp = \empty
+  \let\deftypefn = \empty
+  \let\deftypefnx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypefn = \empty
+  \let\deftypefun = \empty
+  \let\deftypefunx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypefun = \empty
+  \let\deftypeivar = \empty
+  \let\deftypeivarx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypeivar = \empty
+  \let\deftypemethod = \empty
+  \let\deftypemethodx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypemethod = \empty
+  \let\deftypeop = \empty
+  \let\deftypeopx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypeop = \empty
+  \let\deftypevar = \empty
+  \let\deftypevarx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypevar = \empty
+  \let\deftypevr = \empty
+  \let\deftypevrx = \empty
+  \let\Edeftypevr = \empty
+  \let\defun = \empty
+  \let\defunx = \empty
+  \let\Edefun = \empty
+  \let\defvar = \empty
+  \let\defvarx = \empty
+  \let\Edefvar = \empty
+  \let\defvr = \empty
+  \let\defvrx = \empty
+  \let\Edefvr = \empty
+  \let\clear = \relax
+  \let\down = \relax
+  \let\evenfooting = \relax
+  \let\evenheading = \relax
+  \let\everyfooting = \relax
+  \let\everyheading = \relax
+  \let\headings = \relax
+  \let\include = \relax
+  \let\item = \relax
+  \let\lowersections = \relax
+  \let\oddfooting = \relax
+  \let\oddheading = \relax
+  \let\printindex = \relax
+  \let\pxref = \relax
+  \let\raisesections = \relax
+  \let\ref = \relax
+  \let\set = \relax
+  \let\setchapternewpage = \relax
+  \let\setchapterstyle = \relax
+  \let\settitle = \relax
+  \let\up = \relax
+  \let\verbatiminclude = \relax
+  \let\xref = \relax
+}
+
+% Ignore @ignore, @ifhtml, @ifinfo, and the like.
+%
+\def\direntry{\doignore{direntry}}
+\def\documentdescriptionword{documentdescription}
+\def\documentdescription{\doignore{documentdescription}}
+\def\html{\doignore{html}}
+\def\ifhtml{\doignore{ifhtml}}
+\def\ifinfo{\doignore{ifinfo}}
+\def\ifnottex{\doignore{ifnottex}}
+\def\ifplaintext{\doignore{ifplaintext}}
+\def\ifxml{\doignore{ifxml}}
+\def\ignore{\doignore{ignore}}
+\def\menu{\doignore{menu}}
+\def\xml{\doignore{xml}}
+
+% @dircategory CATEGORY  -- specify a category of the dir file
+% which this file should belong to.  Ignore this in TeX.
+\let\dircategory = \comment
+
+% Ignore text until a line `@end #1'.
+%
+\def\doignore#1{\begingroup
+  % Don't complain about control sequences we have declared \outer.
+  \ignoresections
+  %
+  % Define a command to swallow text until we reach `@end #1'.
+  % This @ is a catcode 12 token (that is the normal catcode of @ in
+  % this texinfo.tex file).  We change the catcode of @ below to match.
+  \long\def\doignoretext##1@end #1{\enddoignore}%
+  %
+  % Make sure that spaces turn into tokens that match what \doignoretext wants.
+  \catcode\spaceChar = 10
+  %
+  % Ignore braces, too, so mismatched braces don't cause trouble.
+  \catcode`\{ = 9
+  \catcode`\} = 9
+  %
+  % We must not have @c interpreted as a control sequence.
+  \catcode`\@ = 12
+  %
+  \def\ignoreword{#1}%
+  \ifx\ignoreword\documentdescriptionword
+    % The c kludge breaks documentdescription, since
+    % `documentdescription' contains a `c'.  Means not everything will
+    % be ignored inside @documentdescription, but oh well...
+  \else
+    % Make the letter c a comment character so that the rest of the line
+    % will be ignored. This way, the document can have (for example)
+    %   @c @end ifinfo
+    % and the @end ifinfo will be properly ignored.
+    % (We've just changed @ to catcode 12.)
+    \catcode`\c = 14
+  \fi
+  %
+  % And now expand the command defined above.
+  \doignoretext
+}
+
+% What we do to finish off ignored text.
+%
+\def\enddoignore{\endgroup\ignorespaces}%
+
+\newif\ifwarnedobs\warnedobsfalse
+\def\obstexwarn{%
+  \ifwarnedobs\relax\else
+  % We need to warn folks that they may have trouble with TeX 3.0.
+  % This uses \immediate\write16 rather than \message to get newlines.
+    \immediate\write16{}
+    \immediate\write16{WARNING: for users of Unix TeX 3.0!}
+    \immediate\write16{This manual trips a bug in TeX version 3.0 (tex hangs).}
+    \immediate\write16{If you are running another version of TeX, relax.}
+    \immediate\write16{If you are running Unix TeX 3.0, kill this TeX process.}
+    \immediate\write16{  Then upgrade your TeX installation if you can.}
+    \immediate\write16{  (See ftp://ftp.gnu.org/non-gnu/TeX.README.)}
+    \immediate\write16{If you are stuck with version 3.0, run the}
+    \immediate\write16{  script ``tex3patch'' from the Texinfo distribution}
+    \immediate\write16{  to use a workaround.}
+    \immediate\write16{}
+    \global\warnedobstrue
+    \fi
+}
+
+% **In TeX 3.0, setting text in \nullfont hangs tex.  For a
+% workaround (which requires the file ``dummy.tfm'' to be installed),
+% uncomment the following line:
+%%%%%\font\nullfont=dummy\let\obstexwarn=\relax
+
+% Ignore text, except that we keep track of conditional commands for
+% purposes of nesting, up to an `@end #1' command.
+%
+\def\nestedignore#1{%
+  \obstexwarn
+  % We must actually expand the ignored text to look for the @end
+  % command, so that nested ignore constructs work.  Thus, we put the
+  % text into a \vbox and then do nothing with the result.  To minimize
+  % the chance of memory overflow, we follow the approach outlined on
+  % page 401 of the TeXbook.
+  %
+  \setbox0 = \vbox\bgroup
+    % Don't complain about control sequences we have declared \outer.
+    \ignoresections
+    %
+    % Define `@end #1' to end the box, which will in turn undefine the
+    % @end command again.
+    \expandafter\def\csname E#1\endcsname{\egroup\ignorespaces}%
+    %
+    % We are going to be parsing Texinfo commands.  Most cause no
+    % trouble when they are used incorrectly, but some commands do
+    % complicated argument parsing or otherwise get confused, so we
+    % undefine them.
+    %
+    % We can't do anything about stray @-signs, unfortunately;
+    % they'll produce `undefined control sequence' errors.
+    \ignoremorecommands
+    %
+    % Set the current font to be \nullfont, a TeX primitive, and define
+    % all the font commands to also use \nullfont.  We don't use
+    % dummy.tfm, as suggested in the TeXbook, because some sites
+    % might not have that installed.  Therefore, math mode will still
+    % produce output, but that should be an extremely small amount of
+    % stuff compared to the main input.
+    %
+    \nullfont
+    \let\tenrm=\nullfont \let\tenit=\nullfont \let\tensl=\nullfont
+    \let\tenbf=\nullfont \let\tentt=\nullfont \let\smallcaps=\nullfont
+    \let\tensf=\nullfont
+    % Similarly for index fonts.
+    \let\smallrm=\nullfont \let\smallit=\nullfont \let\smallsl=\nullfont
+    \let\smallbf=\nullfont \let\smalltt=\nullfont \let\smallsc=\nullfont
+    \let\smallsf=\nullfont
+    % Similarly for smallexample fonts.
+    \let\smallerrm=\nullfont \let\smallerit=\nullfont \let\smallersl=\nullfont
+    \let\smallerbf=\nullfont \let\smallertt=\nullfont \let\smallersc=\nullfont
+    \let\smallersf=\nullfont
+    %
+    % Don't complain when characters are missing from the fonts.
+    \tracinglostchars = 0
+    %
+    % Don't bother to do space factor calculations.
+    \frenchspacing
+    %
+    % Don't report underfull hboxes.
+    \hbadness = 10000
+    %
+    % Do minimal line-breaking.
+    \pretolerance = 10000
+    %
+    % Do not execute instructions in @tex.
+    \def\tex{\doignore{tex}}%
+    % Do not execute macro definitions.
+    % `c' is a comment character, so the word `macro' will get cut off.
+    \def\macro{\doignore{ma}}%
+}
+
+% @set VAR sets the variable VAR to an empty value.
+% @set VAR REST-OF-LINE sets VAR to the value REST-OF-LINE.
+%
+% Since we want to separate VAR from REST-OF-LINE (which might be
+% empty), we can't just use \parsearg; we have to insert a space of our
+% own to delimit the rest of the line, and then take it out again if we
+% didn't need it.  Make sure the catcode of space is correct to avoid
+% losing inside @example, for instance.
+%
+\def\set{\begingroup\catcode` =10
+  \catcode`\-=12 \catcode`\_=12 % Allow - and _ in VAR.
+  \parsearg\setxxx}
+\def\setxxx#1{\setyyy#1 \endsetyyy}
+\def\setyyy#1 #2\endsetyyy{%
+  \def\temp{#2}%
+  \ifx\temp\empty \global\expandafter\let\csname SET#1\endcsname = \empty
+  \else \setzzz{#1}#2\endsetzzz % Remove the trailing space \setxxx inserted.
+  \fi
+  \endgroup
+}
+% Can't use \xdef to pre-expand #2 and save some time, since \temp or
+% \next or other control sequences that we've defined might get us into
+% an infinite loop. Consider `@set foo @cite{bar}'.
+\def\setzzz#1#2 \endsetzzz{\expandafter\gdef\csname SET#1\endcsname{#2}}
+
+% @clear VAR clears (i.e., unsets) the variable VAR.
+%
+\def\clear{\parsearg\clearxxx}
+\def\clearxxx#1{\global\expandafter\let\csname SET#1\endcsname=\relax}
+
+% @value{foo} gets the text saved in variable foo.
+{
+  \catcode`\_ = \active
+  %
+  % We might end up with active _ or - characters in the argument if
+  % we're called from @code, as @code{@value{foo-bar_}}.  So \let any
+  % such active characters to their normal equivalents.
+  \gdef\value{\begingroup
+    \catcode`\-=\other \catcode`\_=\other
+    \indexbreaks \let_\normalunderscore
+    \valuexxx}
+}
+\def\valuexxx#1{\expandablevalue{#1}\endgroup}
+
+% We have this subroutine so that we can handle at least some @value's
+% properly in indexes (we \let\value to this in \indexdummies).  Ones
+% whose names contain - or _ still won't work, but we can't do anything
+% about that.  The command has to be fully expandable (if the variable
+% is set), since the result winds up in the index file.  This means that
+% if the variable's value contains other Texinfo commands, it's almost
+% certain it will fail (although perhaps we could fix that with
+% sufficient work to do a one-level expansion on the result, instead of
+% complete).
+%
+\def\expandablevalue#1{%
+  \expandafter\ifx\csname SET#1\endcsname\relax
+    {[No value for ``#1'']}%
+    \message{Variable `#1', used in @value, is not set.}%
+  \else
+    \csname SET#1\endcsname
+  \fi
+}
+
+% @ifset VAR ... @end ifset reads the `...' iff VAR has been defined
+% with @set.
+%
+\def\ifset{\parsearg\doifset}
+\def\doifset#1{%
+  \expandafter\ifx\csname SET#1\endcsname\relax
+    \let\next=\ifsetfail
+  \else
+    \let\next=\ifsetsucceed
+  \fi
+  \next
+}
+\def\ifsetsucceed{\conditionalsucceed{ifset}}
+\def\ifsetfail{\nestedignore{ifset}}
+\defineunmatchedend{ifset}
+
+% @ifclear VAR ... @end ifclear reads the `...' iff VAR has never been
+% defined with @set, or has been undefined with @clear.
+%
+\def\ifclear{\parsearg\doifclear}
+\def\doifclear#1{%
+  \expandafter\ifx\csname SET#1\endcsname\relax
+    \let\next=\ifclearsucceed
+  \else
+    \let\next=\ifclearfail
+  \fi
+  \next
+}
+\def\ifclearsucceed{\conditionalsucceed{ifclear}}
+\def\ifclearfail{\nestedignore{ifclear}}
+\defineunmatchedend{ifclear}
+
+% @iftex, @ifnothtml, @ifnotinfo, @ifnotplaintext always succeed; we
+% read the text following, through the first @end iftex (etc.).  Make
+% `@end iftex' (etc.) valid only after an @iftex.
+%
+\def\iftex{\conditionalsucceed{iftex}}
+\def\ifnothtml{\conditionalsucceed{ifnothtml}}
+\def\ifnotinfo{\conditionalsucceed{ifnotinfo}}
+\def\ifnotplaintext{\conditionalsucceed{ifnotplaintext}}
+\defineunmatchedend{iftex}
+\defineunmatchedend{ifnothtml}
+\defineunmatchedend{ifnotinfo}
+\defineunmatchedend{ifnotplaintext}
+
+% True conditional.  Since \set globally defines its variables, we can
+% just start and end a group (to keep the @end definition undefined at
+% the outer level).
+%
+\def\conditionalsucceed#1{\begingroup
+  \expandafter\def\csname E#1\endcsname{\endgroup}%
+}
+
+% @defininfoenclose.
+\let\definfoenclose=\comment
+
+
+\message{indexing,}
+% Index generation facilities
+
+% Define \newwrite to be identical to plain tex's \newwrite
+% except not \outer, so it can be used within \newindex.
+{\catcode`\@=11
+\gdef\newwrite{\alloc@7\write\chardef\sixt@@n}}
+
+% \newindex {foo} defines an index named foo.
+% It automatically defines \fooindex such that
+% \fooindex ...rest of line... puts an entry in the index foo.
+% It also defines \fooindfile to be the number of the output channel for
+% the file that accumulates this index.  The file's extension is foo.
+% The name of an index should be no more than 2 characters long
+% for the sake of vms.
+%
+\def\newindex#1{%
+  \iflinks
+    \expandafter\newwrite \csname#1indfile\endcsname
+    \openout \csname#1indfile\endcsname \jobname.#1 % Open the file
+  \fi
+  \expandafter\xdef\csname#1index\endcsname{%     % Define @#1index
+    \noexpand\doindex{#1}}
+}
+
+% @defindex foo  ==  \newindex{foo}
+%
+\def\defindex{\parsearg\newindex}
+
+% Define @defcodeindex, like @defindex except put all entries in @code.
+%
+\def\defcodeindex{\parsearg\newcodeindex}
+%
+\def\newcodeindex#1{%
+  \iflinks
+    \expandafter\newwrite \csname#1indfile\endcsname
+    \openout \csname#1indfile\endcsname \jobname.#1
+  \fi
+  \expandafter\xdef\csname#1index\endcsname{%
+    \noexpand\docodeindex{#1}}%
+}
+
+
+% @synindex foo bar    makes index foo feed into index bar.
+% Do this instead of @defindex foo if you don't want it as a separate index.
+% 
+% @syncodeindex foo bar   similar, but put all entries made for index foo
+% inside @code.
+% 
+\def\synindex#1 #2 {\dosynindex\doindex{#1}{#2}}
+\def\syncodeindex#1 #2 {\dosynindex\docodeindex{#1}{#2}}
+
+% #1 is \doindex or \docodeindex, #2 the index getting redefined (foo),
+% #3 the target index (bar).
+\def\dosynindex#1#2#3{%
+  % Only do \closeout if we haven't already done it, else we'll end up
+  % closing the target index.
+  \expandafter \ifx\csname donesynindex#2\endcsname \undefined
+    % The \closeout helps reduce unnecessary open files; the limit on the
+    % Acorn RISC OS is a mere 16 files.
+    \expandafter\closeout\csname#2indfile\endcsname
+    \expandafter\let\csname\donesynindex#2\endcsname = 1
+  \fi
+  % redefine \fooindfile:
+  \expandafter\let\expandafter\temp\expandafter=\csname#3indfile\endcsname
+  \expandafter\let\csname#2indfile\endcsname=\temp
+  % redefine \fooindex:
+  \expandafter\xdef\csname#2index\endcsname{\noexpand#1{#3}}%
+}
+
+% Define \doindex, the driver for all \fooindex macros.
+% Argument #1 is generated by the calling \fooindex macro,
+%  and it is "foo", the name of the index.
+
+% \doindex just uses \parsearg; it calls \doind for the actual work.
+% This is because \doind is more useful to call from other macros.
+
+% There is also \dosubind {index}{topic}{subtopic}
+% which makes an entry in a two-level index such as the operation index.
+
+\def\doindex#1{\edef\indexname{#1}\parsearg\singleindexer}
+\def\singleindexer #1{\doind{\indexname}{#1}}
+
+% like the previous two, but they put @code around the argument.
+\def\docodeindex#1{\edef\indexname{#1}\parsearg\singlecodeindexer}
+\def\singlecodeindexer #1{\doind{\indexname}{\code{#1}}}
+
+% Take care of Texinfo commands that can appear in an index entry.
+% Since there are some commands we want to expand, and others we don't,
+% we have to laboriously prevent expansion for those that we don't.
+% 
+\def\indexdummies{%
+  \def\@{@}% change to @@ when we switch to @ as escape char in index files.
+  \def\ {\realbackslash\space }%
+  % Need these in case \tex is in effect and \{ is a \delimiter again.
+  % But can't use \lbracecmd and \rbracecmd because texindex assumes
+  % braces and backslashes are used only as delimiters.  
+  \let\{ = \mylbrace
+  \let\} = \myrbrace
+  %
+  % \definedummyword defines \#1 as \realbackslash #1\space, thus
+  % effectively preventing its expansion.  This is used only for control
+  % words, not control letters, because the \space would be incorrect
+  % for control characters, but is needed to separate the control word
+  % from whatever follows.
+  % 
+  % For control letters, we have \definedummyletter, which omits the
+  % space.
+  % 
+  % These can be used both for control words that take an argument and
+  % those that do not.  If it is followed by {arg} in the input, then
+  % that will dutifully get written to the index (or wherever).
+  % 
+  \def\definedummyword##1{%
+    \expandafter\def\csname ##1\endcsname{\realbackslash ##1\space}%
+  }%
+  \def\definedummyletter##1{%
+    \expandafter\def\csname ##1\endcsname{\realbackslash ##1}%
+  }%
+  %
+  % Do the redefinitions.
+  \commondummies
+}
+
+% For the aux file, @ is the escape character.  So we want to redefine
+% everything using @ instead of \realbackslash.  When everything uses 
+% @, this will be simpler.
+% 
+\def\atdummies{%
+  \def\@{@@}%
+  \def\ {@ }%
+  \let\{ = \lbraceatcmd
+  \let\} = \rbraceatcmd
+  %
+  % (See comments in \indexdummies.)
+  \def\definedummyword##1{%
+    \expandafter\def\csname ##1\endcsname{@##1\space}%
+  }%
+  \def\definedummyletter##1{%
+    \expandafter\def\csname ##1\endcsname{@##1}%
+  }%
+  %
+  % Do the redefinitions.
+  \commondummies
+}
+
+% Called from \indexdummies and \atdummies.  \definedummyword and
+% \definedummyletter must be defined first.
+% 
+\def\commondummies{%
+  %
+  \normalturnoffactive
+  %
+  % Control letters and accents.
+  \definedummyletter{_}%
+  \definedummyletter{,}%
+  \definedummyletter{"}%
+  \definedummyletter{`}%
+  \definedummyletter{'}%
+  \definedummyletter{^}%
+  \definedummyletter{~}%
+  \definedummyletter{=}%
+  \definedummyword{u}%
+  \definedummyword{v}%
+  \definedummyword{H}%
+  \definedummyword{dotaccent}%
+  \definedummyword{ringaccent}%
+  \definedummyword{tieaccent}%
+  \definedummyword{ubaraccent}%
+  \definedummyword{udotaccent}%
+  \definedummyword{dotless}%
+  %
+  % Other non-English letters.
+  \definedummyword{AA}%
+  \definedummyword{AE}%
+  \definedummyword{L}%
+  \definedummyword{OE}%
+  \definedummyword{O}%
+  \definedummyword{aa}%
+  \definedummyword{ae}%
+  \definedummyword{l}%
+  \definedummyword{oe}%
+  \definedummyword{o}%
+  \definedummyword{ss}%
+  %
+  % Although these internal commands shouldn't show up, sometimes they do.
+  \definedummyword{bf}%
+  \definedummyword{gtr}%
+  \definedummyword{hat}%
+  \definedummyword{less}%
+  \definedummyword{sf}%
+  \definedummyword{sl}%
+  \definedummyword{tclose}%
+  \definedummyword{tt}%
+  %
+  % Texinfo font commands.
+  \definedummyword{b}%
+  \definedummyword{i}%
+  \definedummyword{r}%
+  \definedummyword{sc}%
+  \definedummyword{t}%
+  %
+  \definedummyword{TeX}%
+  \definedummyword{acronym}%
+  \definedummyword{cite}%
+  \definedummyword{code}%
+  \definedummyword{command}%
+  \definedummyword{dfn}%
+  \definedummyword{dots}%
+  \definedummyword{emph}%
+  \definedummyword{env}%
+  \definedummyword{file}%
+  \definedummyword{kbd}%
+  \definedummyword{key}%
+  \definedummyword{math}%
+  \definedummyword{option}%
+  \definedummyword{samp}%
+  \definedummyword{strong}%
+  \definedummyword{uref}%
+  \definedummyword{url}%
+  \definedummyword{var}%
+  \definedummyword{w}%
+  %
+  % Assorted special characters.
+  \definedummyword{bullet}%
+  \definedummyword{copyright}%
+  \definedummyword{dots}%
+  \definedummyword{enddots}%
+  \definedummyword{equiv}%
+  \definedummyword{error}%
+  \definedummyword{expansion}%
+  \definedummyword{minus}%
+  \definedummyword{pounds}%
+  \definedummyword{point}%
+  \definedummyword{print}%
+  \definedummyword{result}%
+  %
+  % Handle some cases of @value -- where the variable name does not
+  % contain - or _, and the value does not contain any
+  % (non-fully-expandable) commands.
+  \let\value = \expandablevalue
+  %
+  % Normal spaces, not active ones.
+  \unsepspaces
+  %
+  % No macro expansion.
+  \turnoffmacros
+}
+
+% If an index command is used in an @example environment, any spaces
+% therein should become regular spaces in the raw index file, not the
+% expansion of \tie (\leavevmode \penalty \@M \ ).
+{\obeyspaces
+ \gdef\unsepspaces{\obeyspaces\let =\space}}
+
+
+% \indexnofonts is used when outputting the strings to sort the index
+% by, and when constructing control sequence names.  It eliminates all
+% control sequences and just writes whatever the best ASCII sort string
+% would be for a given command (usually its argument).
+%
+\def\indexdummytex{TeX}
+\def\indexdummydots{...}
+%
+\def\indexnofonts{%
+  \def\ { }%
+  \def\@{@}%
+  % how to handle braces?
+  \def\_{\normalunderscore}%
+  %
+  \let\,=\asis
+  \let\"=\asis
+  \let\`=\asis
+  \let\'=\asis
+  \let\^=\asis
+  \let\~=\asis
+  \let\==\asis
+  \let\u=\asis
+  \let\v=\asis
+  \let\H=\asis
+  \let\dotaccent=\asis
+  \let\ringaccent=\asis
+  \let\tieaccent=\asis
+  \let\ubaraccent=\asis
+  \let\udotaccent=\asis
+  \let\dotless=\asis
+  %
+  % Other non-English letters.
+  \def\AA{AA}%
+  \def\AE{AE}%
+  \def\L{L}%
+  \def\OE{OE}%
+  \def\O{O}%
+  \def\aa{aa}%
+  \def\ae{ae}%
+  \def\l{l}%
+  \def\oe{oe}%
+  \def\o{o}%
+  \def\ss{ss}%
+  \def\exclamdown{!}%
+  \def\questiondown{?}%
+  %
+  % Don't no-op \tt, since it isn't a user-level command
+  % and is used in the definitions of the active chars like <, >, |, etc.
+  % Likewise with the other plain tex font commands.
+  %\let\tt=\asis
+  %
+  % Texinfo font commands.
+  \let\b=\asis
+  \let\i=\asis
+  \let\r=\asis
+  \let\sc=\asis
+  \let\t=\asis
+  %
+  \let\TeX=\indexdummytex
+  \let\acronym=\asis
+  \let\cite=\asis
+  \let\code=\asis
+  \let\command=\asis
+  \let\dfn=\asis
+  \let\dots=\indexdummydots
+  \let\emph=\asis
+  \let\env=\asis
+  \let\file=\asis
+  \let\kbd=\asis
+  \let\key=\asis
+  \let\math=\asis
+  \let\option=\asis
+  \let\samp=\asis
+  \let\strong=\asis
+  \let\uref=\asis
+  \let\url=\asis
+  \let\var=\asis
+  \let\w=\asis
+}
+
+\let\indexbackslash=0  %overridden during \printindex.
+\let\SETmarginindex=\relax % put index entries in margin (undocumented)?
+
+% For \ifx comparisons.
+\def\emptymacro{\empty}
+
+% Most index entries go through here, but \dosubind is the general case.
+%
+\def\doind#1#2{\dosubind{#1}{#2}\empty}
+
+% Workhorse for all \fooindexes.
+% #1 is name of index, #2 is stuff to put there, #3 is subentry --
+% \empty if called from \doind, as we usually are.  The main exception
+% is with defuns, which call us directly.
+%
+\def\dosubind#1#2#3{%
+  % Put the index entry in the margin if desired.
+  \ifx\SETmarginindex\relax\else
+    \insert\margin{\hbox{\vrule height8pt depth3pt width0pt #2}}%
+  \fi
+  {%
+    \count255=\lastpenalty
+    {%
+      \indexdummies % Must do this here, since \bf, etc expand at this stage
+      \escapechar=`\\
+      {%
+        \let\folio = 0% We will expand all macros now EXCEPT \folio.
+        \def\rawbackslashxx{\indexbackslash}% \indexbackslash isn't defined now
+        % so it will be output as is; and it will print as backslash.
+        %
+        % The main index entry text.
+        \toks0 = {#2}%
+        %
+        % If third arg is present, precede it with space in sort key.
+        \def\thirdarg{#3}%
+        \ifx\thirdarg\emptymacro \else
+           % If the third (subentry) arg is present, add it to the index
+           % line to write.
+          \toks0 = \expandafter{\the\toks0 \space #3}%
+        \fi
+        %
+        % Process the index entry with all font commands turned off, to
+        % get the string to sort by.
+        {\indexnofonts
+         \edef\temp{\the\toks0}% need full expansion
+         \xdef\indexsorttmp{\temp}%
+        }%
+        %
+        % Set up the complete index entry, with both the sort key and
+        % the original text, including any font commands.  We write
+        % three arguments to \entry to the .?? file (four in the
+        % subentry case), texindex reduces to two when writing the .??s
+        % sorted result.
+        \edef\temp{%
+          \write\csname#1indfile\endcsname{%
+            \realbackslash entry{\indexsorttmp}{\folio}{\the\toks0}}%
+        }%
+        %
+        % If a skip is the last thing on the list now, preserve it
+        % by backing up by \lastskip, doing the \write, then inserting
+        % the skip again.  Otherwise, the whatsit generated by the
+        % \write will make \lastskip zero.  The result is that sequences
+        % like this:
+        % @end defun
+        % @tindex whatever
+        % @defun ...
+        % will have extra space inserted, because the \medbreak in the
+        % start of the @defun won't see the skip inserted by the @end of
+        % the previous defun.
+        %
+        % But don't do any of this if we're not in vertical mode.  We
+        % don't want to do a \vskip and prematurely end a paragraph.
+        %
+        % Avoid page breaks due to these extra skips, too.
+        %
+        \iflinks
+          \ifvmode
+            \skip0 = \lastskip
+            \ifdim\lastskip = 0pt \else \nobreak\vskip-\skip0 \fi
+          \fi
+          %
+          \temp % do the write
+          %
+          \ifvmode \ifdim\skip0 = 0pt \else \nobreak\vskip\skip0 \fi \fi
+        \fi
+      }%
+    }%
+    \penalty\count255
+  }%
+}
+
+% The index entry written in the file actually looks like
+%  \entry {sortstring}{page}{topic}
+% or
+%  \entry {sortstring}{page}{topic}{subtopic}
+% The texindex program reads in these files and writes files
+% containing these kinds of lines:
+%  \initial {c}
+%     before the first topic whose initial is c
+%  \entry {topic}{pagelist}
+%     for a topic that is used without subtopics
+%  \primary {topic}
+%     for the beginning of a topic that is used with subtopics
+%  \secondary {subtopic}{pagelist}
+%     for each subtopic.
+
+% Define the user-accessible indexing commands
+% @findex, @vindex, @kindex, @cindex.
+
+\def\findex {\fnindex}
+\def\kindex {\kyindex}
+\def\cindex {\cpindex}
+\def\vindex {\vrindex}
+\def\tindex {\tpindex}
+\def\pindex {\pgindex}
+
+\def\cindexsub {\begingroup\obeylines\cindexsub}
+{\obeylines %
+\gdef\cindexsub "#1" #2^^M{\endgroup %
+\dosubind{cp}{#2}{#1}}}
+
+% Define the macros used in formatting output of the sorted index material.
+
+% @printindex causes a particular index (the ??s file) to get printed.
+% It does not print any chapter heading (usually an @unnumbered).
+%
+\def\printindex{\parsearg\doprintindex}
+\def\doprintindex#1{\begingroup
+  \dobreak \chapheadingskip{10000}%
+  %
+  \smallfonts \rm
+  \tolerance = 9500
+  \indexbreaks
+  %
+  % See if the index file exists and is nonempty.
+  % Change catcode of @ here so that if the index file contains
+  % \initial {@}
+  % as its first line, TeX doesn't complain about mismatched braces
+  % (because it thinks @} is a control sequence).
+  \catcode`\@ = 11
+  \openin 1 \jobname.#1s
+  \ifeof 1
+    % \enddoublecolumns gets confused if there is no text in the index,
+    % and it loses the chapter title and the aux file entries for the
+    % index.  The easiest way to prevent this problem is to make sure
+    % there is some text.
+    \putwordIndexNonexistent
+  \else
+    %
+    % If the index file exists but is empty, then \openin leaves \ifeof
+    % false.  We have to make TeX try to read something from the file, so
+    % it can discover if there is anything in it.
+    \read 1 to \temp
+    \ifeof 1
+      \putwordIndexIsEmpty
+    \else
+      % Index files are almost Texinfo source, but we use \ as the escape
+      % character.  It would be better to use @, but that's too big a change
+      % to make right now.
+      \def\indexbackslash{\rawbackslashxx}%
+      \catcode`\\ = 0
+      \escapechar = `\\
+      \begindoublecolumns
+      \input \jobname.#1s
+      \enddoublecolumns
+    \fi
+  \fi
+  \closein 1
+\endgroup}
+
+% These macros are used by the sorted index file itself.
+% Change them to control the appearance of the index.
+
+\def\initial#1{{%
+  % Some minor font changes for the special characters.
+  \let\tentt=\sectt \let\tt=\sectt \let\sf=\sectt
+  %
+  % Remove any glue we may have, we'll be inserting our own.
+  \removelastskip
+  %
+  % We like breaks before the index initials, so insert a bonus.
+  \penalty -300
+  %
+  % Typeset the initial.  Making this add up to a whole number of
+  % baselineskips increases the chance of the dots lining up from column
+  % to column.  It still won't often be perfect, because of the stretch
+  % we need before each entry, but it's better.
+  %
+  % No shrink because it confuses \balancecolumns.
+  \vskip 1.67\baselineskip plus .5\baselineskip
+  \leftline{\secbf #1}%
+  \vskip .33\baselineskip plus .1\baselineskip
+  %
+  % Do our best not to break after the initial.
+  \nobreak
+}}
+
+% This typesets a paragraph consisting of #1, dot leaders, and then #2
+% flush to the right margin.  It is used for index and table of contents
+% entries.  The paragraph is indented by \leftskip.
+%
+\def\entry#1#2{\begingroup
+  %
+  % Start a new paragraph if necessary, so our assignments below can't
+  % affect previous text.
+  \par
+  %
+  % Do not fill out the last line with white space.
+  \parfillskip = 0in
+  %
+  % No extra space above this paragraph.
+  \parskip = 0in
+  %
+  % Do not prefer a separate line ending with a hyphen to fewer lines.
+  \finalhyphendemerits = 0
+  %
+  % \hangindent is only relevant when the entry text and page number
+  % don't both fit on one line.  In that case, bob suggests starting the
+  % dots pretty far over on the line.  Unfortunately, a large
+  % indentation looks wrong when the entry text itself is broken across
+  % lines.  So we use a small indentation and put up with long leaders.
+  %
+  % \hangafter is reset to 1 (which is the value we want) at the start
+  % of each paragraph, so we need not do anything with that.
+  \hangindent = 2em
+  %
+  % When the entry text needs to be broken, just fill out the first line
+  % with blank space.
+  \rightskip = 0pt plus1fil
+  %
+  % A bit of stretch before each entry for the benefit of balancing columns.
+  \vskip 0pt plus1pt
+  %
+  % Start a ``paragraph'' for the index entry so the line breaking
+  % parameters we've set above will have an effect.
+  \noindent
+  %
+  % Insert the text of the index entry.  TeX will do line-breaking on it.
+  #1%
+  % The following is kludged to not output a line of dots in the index if
+  % there are no page numbers.  The next person who breaks this will be
+  % cursed by a Unix daemon.
+  \def\tempa{{\rm }}%
+  \def\tempb{#2}%
+  \edef\tempc{\tempa}%
+  \edef\tempd{\tempb}%
+  \ifx\tempc\tempd\ \else%
+    %
+    % If we must, put the page number on a line of its own, and fill out
+    % this line with blank space.  (The \hfil is overwhelmed with the
+    % fill leaders glue in \indexdotfill if the page number does fit.)
+    \hfil\penalty50
+    \null\nobreak\indexdotfill % Have leaders before the page number.
+    %
+    % The `\ ' here is removed by the implicit \unskip that TeX does as
+    % part of (the primitive) \par.  Without it, a spurious underfull
+    % \hbox ensues.
+    \ifpdf
+      \pdfgettoks#2.\ \the\toksA % The page number ends the paragraph.
+    \else
+      \ #2% The page number ends the paragraph.
+    \fi
+  \fi%
+  \par
+\endgroup}
+
+% Like \dotfill except takes at least 1 em.
+\def\indexdotfill{\cleaders
+  \hbox{$\mathsurround=0pt \mkern1.5mu ${\it .}$ \mkern1.5mu$}\hskip 1em plus 1fill}
+
+\def\primary #1{\line{#1\hfil}}
+
+\newskip\secondaryindent \secondaryindent=0.5cm
+\def\secondary#1#2{{%
+  \parfillskip=0in
+  \parskip=0in
+  \hangindent=1in
+  \hangafter=1
+  \noindent\hskip\secondaryindent\hbox{#1}\indexdotfill
+  \ifpdf
+    \pdfgettoks#2.\ \the\toksA % The page number ends the paragraph.
+  \else
+    #2
+  \fi
+  \par
+}}
+
+% Define two-column mode, which we use to typeset indexes.
+% Adapted from the TeXbook, page 416, which is to say,
+% the manmac.tex format used to print the TeXbook itself.
+\catcode`\@=11
+
+\newbox\partialpage
+\newdimen\doublecolumnhsize
+
+\def\begindoublecolumns{\begingroup % ended by \enddoublecolumns
+  % Grab any single-column material above us.
+  \output = {%
+    %
+    % Here is a possibility not foreseen in manmac: if we accumulate a
+    % whole lot of material, we might end up calling this \output
+    % routine twice in a row (see the doublecol-lose test, which is
+    % essentially a couple of indexes with @setchapternewpage off).  In
+    % that case we just ship out what is in \partialpage with the normal
+    % output routine.  Generally, \partialpage will be empty when this
+    % runs and this will be a no-op.  See the indexspread.tex test case.
+    \ifvoid\partialpage \else
+      \onepageout{\pagecontents\partialpage}%
+    \fi
+    %
+    \global\setbox\partialpage = \vbox{%
+      % Unvbox the main output page.
+      \unvbox\PAGE
+      \kern-\topskip \kern\baselineskip
+    }%
+  }%
+  \eject % run that output routine to set \partialpage
+  %
+  % Use the double-column output routine for subsequent pages.
+  \output = {\doublecolumnout}%
+  %
+  % Change the page size parameters.  We could do this once outside this
+  % routine, in each of @smallbook, @afourpaper, and the default 8.5x11
+  % format, but then we repeat the same computation.  Repeating a couple
+  % of assignments once per index is clearly meaningless for the
+  % execution time, so we may as well do it in one place.
+  %
+  % First we halve the line length, less a little for the gutter between
+  % the columns.  We compute the gutter based on the line length, so it
+  % changes automatically with the paper format.  The magic constant
+  % below is chosen so that the gutter has the same value (well, +-<1pt)
+  % as it did when we hard-coded it.
+  %
+  % We put the result in a separate register, \doublecolumhsize, so we
+  % can restore it in \pagesofar, after \hsize itself has (potentially)
+  % been clobbered.
+  %
+  \doublecolumnhsize = \hsize
+    \advance\doublecolumnhsize by -.04154\hsize
+    \divide\doublecolumnhsize by 2
+  \hsize = \doublecolumnhsize
+  %
+  % Double the \vsize as well.  (We don't need a separate register here,
+  % since nobody clobbers \vsize.)
+  \vsize = 2\vsize
+}
+
+% The double-column output routine for all double-column pages except
+% the last.
+%
+\def\doublecolumnout{%
+  \splittopskip=\topskip \splitmaxdepth=\maxdepth
+  % Get the available space for the double columns -- the normal
+  % (undoubled) page height minus any material left over from the
+  % previous page.
+  \dimen@ = \vsize
+  \divide\dimen@ by 2
+  \advance\dimen@ by -\ht\partialpage
+  %
+  % box0 will be the left-hand column, box2 the right.
+  \setbox0=\vsplit255 to\dimen@ \setbox2=\vsplit255 to\dimen@
+  \onepageout\pagesofar
+  \unvbox255
+  \penalty\outputpenalty
+}
+%
+% Re-output the contents of the output page -- any previous material,
+% followed by the two boxes we just split, in box0 and box2.
+\def\pagesofar{%
+  \unvbox\partialpage
+  %
+  \hsize = \doublecolumnhsize
+  \wd0=\hsize \wd2=\hsize
+  \hbox to\pagewidth{\box0\hfil\box2}%
+}
+% 
+% All done with double columns.
+\def\enddoublecolumns{%
+  \output = {%
+    % Split the last of the double-column material.  Leave it on the
+    % current page, no automatic page break.
+    \balancecolumns
+    %
+    % If we end up splitting too much material for the current page,
+    % though, there will be another page break right after this \output
+    % invocation ends.  Having called \balancecolumns once, we do not
+    % want to call it again.  Therefore, reset \output to its normal
+    % definition right away.  (We hope \balancecolumns will never be
+    % called on to balance too much material, but if it is, this makes
+    % the output somewhat more palatable.)
+    \global\output = {\onepageout{\pagecontents\PAGE}}%
+  }%
+  \eject
+  \endgroup % started in \begindoublecolumns
+  %
+  % \pagegoal was set to the doubled \vsize above, since we restarted
+  % the current page.  We're now back to normal single-column
+  % typesetting, so reset \pagegoal to the normal \vsize (after the
+  % \endgroup where \vsize got restored).
+  \pagegoal = \vsize
+}
+%
+% Called at the end of the double column material.
+\def\balancecolumns{%
+  \setbox0 = \vbox{\unvbox255}% like \box255 but more efficient, see p.120.
+  \dimen@ = \ht0
+  \advance\dimen@ by \topskip
+  \advance\dimen@ by-\baselineskip
+  \divide\dimen@ by 2 % target to split to
+  %debug\message{final 2-column material height=\the\ht0, target=\the\dimen@.}%
+  \splittopskip = \topskip
+  % Loop until we get a decent breakpoint.
+  {%
+    \vbadness = 10000
+    \loop
+      \global\setbox3 = \copy0
+      \global\setbox1 = \vsplit3 to \dimen@
+    \ifdim\ht3>\dimen@
+      \global\advance\dimen@ by 1pt
+    \repeat
+  }%
+  %debug\message{split to \the\dimen@, column heights: \the\ht1, \the\ht3.}%
+  \setbox0=\vbox to\dimen@{\unvbox1}%
+  \setbox2=\vbox to\dimen@{\unvbox3}%
+  %
+  \pagesofar
+}
+\catcode`\@ = \other
+
+
+\message{sectioning,}
+% Chapters, sections, etc.
+
+\newcount\chapno
+\newcount\secno        \secno=0
+\newcount\subsecno     \subsecno=0
+\newcount\subsubsecno  \subsubsecno=0
+
+% This counter is funny since it counts through charcodes of letters A, B, ...
+\newcount\appendixno  \appendixno = `\@
+% \def\appendixletter{\char\the\appendixno}
+% We do the following for the sake of pdftex, which needs the actual
+% letter in the expansion, not just typeset.
+\def\appendixletter{%
+  \ifnum\appendixno=`A A%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`B B%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`C C%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`D D%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`E E%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`F F%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`G G%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`H H%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`I I%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`J J%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`K K%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`L L%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`M M%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`N N%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`O O%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`P P%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`Q Q%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`R R%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`S S%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`T T%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`U U%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`V V%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`W W%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`X X%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`Y Y%
+  \else\ifnum\appendixno=`Z Z%
+  % The \the is necessary, despite appearances, because \appendixletter is
+  % expanded while writing the .toc file.  \char\appendixno is not
+  % expandable, thus it is written literally, thus all appendixes come out
+  % with the same letter (or @) in the toc without it.
+  \else\char\the\appendixno
+  \fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi
+  \fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi\fi}
+
+% Each @chapter defines this as the name of the chapter.
+% page headings and footings can use it.  @section does likewise.
+\def\thischapter{}
+\def\thissection{}
+
+\newcount\absseclevel % used to calculate proper heading level
+\newcount\secbase\secbase=0 % @raise/lowersections modify this count
+
+% @raisesections: treat @section as chapter, @subsection as section, etc.
+\def\raisesections{\global\advance\secbase by -1}
+\let\up=\raisesections % original BFox name
+
+% @lowersections: treat @chapter as section, @section as subsection, etc.
+\def\lowersections{\global\advance\secbase by 1}
+\let\down=\lowersections % original BFox name
+
+% Choose a numbered-heading macro
+% #1 is heading level if unmodified by @raisesections or @lowersections
+% #2 is text for heading
+\def\numhead#1#2{\absseclevel=\secbase\advance\absseclevel by #1
+\ifcase\absseclevel
+  \chapterzzz{#2}
+\or
+  \seczzz{#2}
+\or
+  \numberedsubseczzz{#2}
+\or
+  \numberedsubsubseczzz{#2}
+\else
+  \ifnum \absseclevel<0
+    \chapterzzz{#2}
+  \else
+    \numberedsubsubseczzz{#2}
+  \fi
+\fi
+}
+
+% like \numhead, but chooses appendix heading levels
+\def\apphead#1#2{\absseclevel=\secbase\advance\absseclevel by #1
+\ifcase\absseclevel
+  \appendixzzz{#2}
+\or
+  \appendixsectionzzz{#2}
+\or
+  \appendixsubseczzz{#2}
+\or
+  \appendixsubsubseczzz{#2}
+\else
+  \ifnum \absseclevel<0
+    \appendixzzz{#2}
+  \else
+    \appendixsubsubseczzz{#2}
+  \fi
+\fi
+}
+
+% like \numhead, but chooses numberless heading levels
+\def\unnmhead#1#2{\absseclevel=\secbase\advance\absseclevel by #1
+\ifcase\absseclevel
+  \unnumberedzzz{#2}
+\or
+  \unnumberedseczzz{#2}
+\or
+  \unnumberedsubseczzz{#2}
+\or
+  \unnumberedsubsubseczzz{#2}
+\else
+  \ifnum \absseclevel<0
+    \unnumberedzzz{#2}
+  \else
+    \unnumberedsubsubseczzz{#2}
+  \fi
+\fi
+}
+
+% @chapter, @appendix, @unnumbered.
+\def\thischaptername{No Chapter Title}
+\outer\def\chapter{\parsearg\chapteryyy}
+\def\chapteryyy #1{\numhead0{#1}} % normally numhead0 calls chapterzzz
+\def\chapterzzz #1{%
+  \secno=0 \subsecno=0 \subsubsecno=0
+  \global\advance \chapno by 1 \message{\putwordChapter\space \the\chapno}%
+  \chapmacro {#1}{\the\chapno}%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \gdef\thischaptername{#1}%
+  % We don't substitute the actual chapter name into \thischapter
+  % because we don't want its macros evaluated now.
+  \xdef\thischapter{\putwordChapter{} \the\chapno: \noexpand\thischaptername}%
+  \writetocentry{chap}{#1}{{\the\chapno}}
+  \donoderef
+  \global\let\section = \numberedsec
+  \global\let\subsection = \numberedsubsec
+  \global\let\subsubsection = \numberedsubsubsec
+}
+
+% we use \chapno to avoid indenting back
+\def\appendixbox#1{%
+  \setbox0 = \hbox{\putwordAppendix{} \the\chapno}%
+  \hbox to \wd0{#1\hss}}
+
+\outer\def\appendix{\parsearg\appendixyyy}
+\def\appendixyyy #1{\apphead0{#1}} % normally apphead0 calls appendixzzz
+\def\appendixzzz #1{%
+  \secno=0 \subsecno=0 \subsubsecno=0
+  \global\advance \appendixno by 1
+  \message{\putwordAppendix\space \appendixletter}%
+  \chapmacro {#1}{\appendixbox{\putwordAppendix{} \appendixletter}}%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \gdef\thischaptername{#1}%
+  \xdef\thischapter{\putwordAppendix{} \appendixletter: \noexpand\thischaptername}%
+  \writetocentry{appendix}{#1}{{\appendixletter}}
+  \appendixnoderef
+  \global\let\section = \appendixsec
+  \global\let\subsection = \appendixsubsec
+  \global\let\subsubsection = \appendixsubsubsec
+}
+
+% @centerchap is like @unnumbered, but the heading is centered.
+\outer\def\centerchap{\parsearg\centerchapyyy}
+\def\centerchapyyy #1{{\let\unnumbchapmacro=\centerchapmacro \unnumberedyyy{#1}}}
+
+% @top is like @unnumbered.
+\outer\def\top{\parsearg\unnumberedyyy}
+
+\outer\def\unnumbered{\parsearg\unnumberedyyy}
+\def\unnumberedyyy #1{\unnmhead0{#1}} % normally unnmhead0 calls unnumberedzzz
+\def\unnumberedzzz #1{%
+  \secno=0 \subsecno=0 \subsubsecno=0
+  %
+  % This used to be simply \message{#1}, but TeX fully expands the
+  % argument to \message.  Therefore, if #1 contained @-commands, TeX
+  % expanded them.  For example, in `@unnumbered The @cite{Book}', TeX
+  % expanded @cite (which turns out to cause errors because \cite is meant
+  % to be executed, not expanded).
+  %
+  % Anyway, we don't want the fully-expanded definition of @cite to appear
+  % as a result of the \message, we just want `@cite' itself.  We use
+  % \the<toks register> to achieve this: TeX expands \the<toks> only once,
+  % simply yielding the contents of <toks register>.  (We also do this for
+  % the toc entries.)
+  \toks0 = {#1}\message{(\the\toks0)}%
+  %
+  \unnumbchapmacro {#1}%
+  \gdef\thischapter{#1}\gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \writetocentry{unnumbchap}{#1}{{\the\chapno}}
+  \unnumbnoderef
+  \global\let\section = \unnumberedsec
+  \global\let\subsection = \unnumberedsubsec
+  \global\let\subsubsection = \unnumberedsubsubsec
+}
+
+% Sections.
+\outer\def\numberedsec{\parsearg\secyyy}
+\def\secyyy #1{\numhead1{#1}} % normally calls seczzz
+\def\seczzz #1{%
+  \subsecno=0 \subsubsecno=0 \global\advance \secno by 1 %
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\secheading {#1}{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}%
+  \writetocentry{sec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}}
+  \donoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\appendixsection{\parsearg\appendixsecyyy}
+\outer\def\appendixsec{\parsearg\appendixsecyyy}
+\def\appendixsecyyy #1{\apphead1{#1}} % normally calls appendixsectionzzz
+\def\appendixsectionzzz #1{%
+  \subsecno=0 \subsubsecno=0 \global\advance \secno by 1 %
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\secheading {#1}{\appendixletter}{\the\secno}%
+  \writetocentry{sec}{#1}{{\appendixletter}{\the\secno}}
+  \appendixnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\unnumberedsec{\parsearg\unnumberedsecyyy}
+\def\unnumberedsecyyy #1{\unnmhead1{#1}} % normally calls unnumberedseczzz
+\def\unnumberedseczzz #1{%
+  \plainsecheading {#1}\gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \writetocentry{unnumbsec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}}
+  \unnumbnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+% Subsections.
+\outer\def\numberedsubsec{\parsearg\numberedsubsecyyy}
+\def\numberedsubsecyyy #1{\numhead2{#1}} % normally calls numberedsubseczzz
+\def\numberedsubseczzz #1{%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\subsubsecno=0 \global\advance \subsecno by 1 %
+  \subsecheading {#1}{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}%
+  \writetocentry{subsec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}}
+  \donoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\appendixsubsec{\parsearg\appendixsubsecyyy}
+\def\appendixsubsecyyy #1{\apphead2{#1}} % normally calls appendixsubseczzz
+\def\appendixsubseczzz #1{%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\subsubsecno=0 \global\advance \subsecno by 1 %
+  \subsecheading {#1}{\appendixletter}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}%
+  \writetocentry{subsec}{#1}{{\appendixletter}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}}
+  \appendixnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\unnumberedsubsec{\parsearg\unnumberedsubsecyyy}
+\def\unnumberedsubsecyyy #1{\unnmhead2{#1}} %normally calls unnumberedsubseczzz
+\def\unnumberedsubseczzz #1{%
+  \plainsubsecheading {#1}\gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \writetocentry{unnumbsubsec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}}
+  \unnumbnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+% Subsubsections.
+\outer\def\numberedsubsubsec{\parsearg\numberedsubsubsecyyy}
+\def\numberedsubsubsecyyy #1{\numhead3{#1}} % normally numberedsubsubseczzz
+\def\numberedsubsubseczzz #1{%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\global\advance \subsubsecno by 1 %
+  \subsubsecheading {#1}
+    {\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}{\the\subsubsecno}%
+  \writetocentry{subsubsec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}{\the\subsubsecno}}
+  \donoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\appendixsubsubsec{\parsearg\appendixsubsubsecyyy}
+\def\appendixsubsubsecyyy #1{\apphead3{#1}} % normally appendixsubsubseczzz
+\def\appendixsubsubseczzz #1{%
+  \gdef\thissection{#1}\global\advance \subsubsecno by 1 %
+  \subsubsecheading {#1}
+    {\appendixletter}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}{\the\subsubsecno}%
+  \writetocentry{subsubsec}{#1}{{\appendixletter}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}{\the\subsubsecno}}
+  \appendixnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+\outer\def\unnumberedsubsubsec{\parsearg\unnumberedsubsubsecyyy}
+\def\unnumberedsubsubsecyyy #1{\unnmhead3{#1}} %normally unnumberedsubsubseczzz
+\def\unnumberedsubsubseczzz #1{%
+  \plainsubsubsecheading {#1}\gdef\thissection{#1}%
+  \writetocentry{unnumbsubsubsec}{#1}{{\the\chapno}{\the\secno}{\the\subsecno}{\the\subsubsecno}}
+  \unnumbnoderef
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+% These are variants which are not "outer", so they can appear in @ifinfo.
+% Actually, they should now be obsolete; ordinary section commands should work.
+\def\infotop{\parsearg\unnumberedzzz}
+\def\infounnumbered{\parsearg\unnumberedzzz}
+\def\infounnumberedsec{\parsearg\unnumberedseczzz}
+\def\infounnumberedsubsec{\parsearg\unnumberedsubseczzz}
+\def\infounnumberedsubsubsec{\parsearg\unnumberedsubsubseczzz}
+
+\def\infoappendix{\parsearg\appendixzzz}
+\def\infoappendixsec{\parsearg\appendixseczzz}
+\def\infoappendixsubsec{\parsearg\appendixsubseczzz}
+\def\infoappendixsubsubsec{\parsearg\appendixsubsubseczzz}
+
+\def\infochapter{\parsearg\chapterzzz}
+\def\infosection{\parsearg\sectionzzz}
+\def\infosubsection{\parsearg\subsectionzzz}
+\def\infosubsubsection{\parsearg\subsubsectionzzz}
+
+% These macros control what the section commands do, according
+% to what kind of chapter we are in (ordinary, appendix, or unnumbered).
+% Define them by default for a numbered chapter.
+\global\let\section = \numberedsec
+\global\let\subsection = \numberedsubsec
+\global\let\subsubsection = \numberedsubsubsec
+
+% Define @majorheading, @heading and @subheading
+
+% NOTE on use of \vbox for chapter headings, section headings, and such:
+%       1) We use \vbox rather than the earlier \line to permit
+%          overlong headings to fold.
+%       2) \hyphenpenalty is set to 10000 because hyphenation in a
+%          heading is obnoxious; this forbids it.
+%       3) Likewise, headings look best if no \parindent is used, and
+%          if justification is not attempted.  Hence \raggedright.
+
+
+\def\majorheading{\parsearg\majorheadingzzz}
+\def\majorheadingzzz #1{%
+  {\advance\chapheadingskip by 10pt \chapbreak }%
+  {\chapfonts \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000\tolerance=5000
+                    \parindent=0pt\raggedright
+                    \rm #1\hfill}}\bigskip \par\penalty 200}
+
+\def\chapheading{\parsearg\chapheadingzzz}
+\def\chapheadingzzz #1{\chapbreak %
+  {\chapfonts \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000\tolerance=5000
+                    \parindent=0pt\raggedright
+                    \rm #1\hfill}}\bigskip \par\penalty 200}
+
+% @heading, @subheading, @subsubheading.
+\def\heading{\parsearg\plainsecheading}
+\def\subheading{\parsearg\plainsubsecheading}
+\def\subsubheading{\parsearg\plainsubsubsecheading}
+
+% These macros generate a chapter, section, etc. heading only
+% (including whitespace, linebreaking, etc. around it),
+% given all the information in convenient, parsed form.
+
+%%% Args are the skip and penalty (usually negative)
+\def\dobreak#1#2{\par\ifdim\lastskip<#1\removelastskip\penalty#2\vskip#1\fi}
+
+\def\setchapterstyle #1 {\csname CHAPF#1\endcsname}
+
+%%% Define plain chapter starts, and page on/off switching for it
+% Parameter controlling skip before chapter headings (if needed)
+
+\newskip\chapheadingskip
+
+\def\chapbreak{\dobreak \chapheadingskip {-4000}}
+\def\chappager{\par\vfill\supereject}
+\def\chapoddpage{\chappager \ifodd\pageno \else \hbox to 0pt{} \chappager\fi}
+
+\def\setchapternewpage #1 {\csname CHAPPAG#1\endcsname}
+
+\def\CHAPPAGoff{%
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chappager
+\global\let\pchapsepmacro=\chapbreak
+\global\let\pagealignmacro=\chappager}
+
+\def\CHAPPAGon{%
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chappager
+\global\let\pchapsepmacro=\chappager
+\global\let\pagealignmacro=\chappager
+\global\def\HEADINGSon{\HEADINGSsingle}}
+
+\def\CHAPPAGodd{
+\global\let\contentsalignmacro = \chapoddpage
+\global\let\pchapsepmacro=\chapoddpage
+\global\let\pagealignmacro=\chapoddpage
+\global\def\HEADINGSon{\HEADINGSdouble}}
+
+\CHAPPAGon
+
+\def\CHAPFplain{
+\global\let\chapmacro=\chfplain
+\global\let\unnumbchapmacro=\unnchfplain
+\global\let\centerchapmacro=\centerchfplain}
+
+% Plain chapter opening.
+% #1 is the text, #2 the chapter number or empty if unnumbered.
+\def\chfplain#1#2{%
+  \pchapsepmacro
+  {%
+    \chapfonts \rm
+    \def\chapnum{#2}%
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{#2\ifx\chapnum\empty\else\enspace\fi}%
+    \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000 \tolerance=5000 \parindent=0pt \raggedright
+          \hangindent = \wd0 \centerparametersmaybe
+          \unhbox0 #1\par}%
+  }%
+  \nobreak\bigskip % no page break after a chapter title
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+% Plain opening for unnumbered.
+\def\unnchfplain#1{\chfplain{#1}{}}
+
+% @centerchap -- centered and unnumbered.
+\let\centerparametersmaybe = \relax
+\def\centerchfplain#1{{%
+  \def\centerparametersmaybe{%
+    \advance\rightskip by 3\rightskip
+    \leftskip = \rightskip
+    \parfillskip = 0pt
+  }%
+  \chfplain{#1}{}%
+}}
+
+\CHAPFplain % The default
+
+\def\unnchfopen #1{%
+\chapoddpage {\chapfonts \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000\tolerance=5000
+                       \parindent=0pt\raggedright
+                       \rm #1\hfill}}\bigskip \par\nobreak
+}
+
+\def\chfopen #1#2{\chapoddpage {\chapfonts
+\vbox to 3in{\vfil \hbox to\hsize{\hfil #2} \hbox to\hsize{\hfil #1} \vfil}}%
+\par\penalty 5000 %
+}
+
+\def\centerchfopen #1{%
+\chapoddpage {\chapfonts \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000\tolerance=5000
+                       \parindent=0pt
+                       \hfill {\rm #1}\hfill}}\bigskip \par\nobreak
+}
+
+\def\CHAPFopen{
+\global\let\chapmacro=\chfopen
+\global\let\unnumbchapmacro=\unnchfopen
+\global\let\centerchapmacro=\centerchfopen}
+
+
+% Section titles.
+\newskip\secheadingskip
+\def\secheadingbreak{\dobreak \secheadingskip {-1000}}
+\def\secheading#1#2#3{\sectionheading{sec}{#2.#3}{#1}}
+\def\plainsecheading#1{\sectionheading{sec}{}{#1}}
+
+% Subsection titles.
+\newskip \subsecheadingskip
+\def\subsecheadingbreak{\dobreak \subsecheadingskip {-500}}
+\def\subsecheading#1#2#3#4{\sectionheading{subsec}{#2.#3.#4}{#1}}
+\def\plainsubsecheading#1{\sectionheading{subsec}{}{#1}}
+
+% Subsubsection titles.
+\let\subsubsecheadingskip = \subsecheadingskip
+\let\subsubsecheadingbreak = \subsecheadingbreak
+\def\subsubsecheading#1#2#3#4#5{\sectionheading{subsubsec}{#2.#3.#4.#5}{#1}}
+\def\plainsubsubsecheading#1{\sectionheading{subsubsec}{}{#1}}
+
+
+% Print any size section title.
+%
+% #1 is the section type (sec/subsec/subsubsec), #2 is the section
+% number (maybe empty), #3 the text.
+\def\sectionheading#1#2#3{%
+  {%
+    \expandafter\advance\csname #1headingskip\endcsname by \parskip
+    \csname #1headingbreak\endcsname
+  }%
+  {%
+    % Switch to the right set of fonts.
+    \csname #1fonts\endcsname \rm
+    %
+    % Only insert the separating space if we have a section number.
+    \def\secnum{#2}%
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{#2\ifx\secnum\empty\else\enspace\fi}%
+    %
+    \vbox{\hyphenpenalty=10000 \tolerance=5000 \parindent=0pt \raggedright
+          \hangindent = \wd0 % zero if no section number
+          \unhbox0 #3}%
+  }%
+  % Add extra space after the heading -- either a line space or a
+  % paragraph space, whichever is more.  (Some people like to set
+  % \parskip to large values for some reason.)  Don't allow stretch, though.
+  \nobreak
+  \ifdim\parskip>\normalbaselineskip
+    \kern\parskip
+  \else
+    \kern\normalbaselineskip
+  \fi
+  \nobreak
+}
+
+
+\message{toc,}
+% Table of contents.
+\newwrite\tocfile
+
+% Write an entry to the toc file, opening it if necessary.
+% Called from @chapter, etc.  We supply {\folio} at the end of the
+% argument, which will end up as the last argument to the \...entry macro.
+%
+% Usage: \writetocentry{chap}{The Name of The Game}{{\the\chapno}}
+% We open the .toc file for writing here instead of at @setfilename (or
+% any other fixed time) so that @contents can be anywhere in the document.
+%
+\newif\iftocfileopened
+\def\writetocentry#1#2#3{%
+  \iftocfileopened\else
+    \immediate\openout\tocfile = \jobname.toc
+    \global\tocfileopenedtrue
+  \fi
+  %
+  \iflinks
+    \toks0 = {#2}%
+    \edef\temp{\write\tocfile{\realbackslash #1entry{\the\toks0}#3{\folio}}}%
+    \temp
+  \fi
+  %
+  % Tell \shipout to create a page destination if we're doing pdf, which
+  % will be the target of the links in the table of contents.  We can't
+  % just do it on every page because the title pages are numbered 1 and
+  % 2 (the page numbers aren't printed), and so are the first two pages
+  % of the document.  Thus, we'd have two destinations named `1', and
+  % two named `2'.
+  \ifpdf \pdfmakepagedesttrue \fi
+}
+
+\newskip\contentsrightmargin \contentsrightmargin=1in
+\newcount\savepageno
+\newcount\lastnegativepageno \lastnegativepageno = -1
+
+% Finish up the main text and prepare to read what we've written
+% to \tocfile.
+%
+\def\startcontents#1{%
+   % If @setchapternewpage on, and @headings double, the contents should
+   % start on an odd page, unlike chapters.  Thus, we maintain
+   % \contentsalignmacro in parallel with \pagealignmacro.
+   % From: Torbjorn Granlund <tege@matematik.su.se>
+   \contentsalignmacro
+   \immediate\closeout\tocfile
+   %
+   % Don't need to put `Contents' or `Short Contents' in the headline.
+   % It is abundantly clear what they are.
+   \unnumbchapmacro{#1}\def\thischapter{}%
+   \savepageno = \pageno
+   \begingroup                  % Set up to handle contents files properly.
+      \catcode`\\=0  \catcode`\{=1  \catcode`\}=2  \catcode`\@=11
+      % We can't do this, because then an actual ^ in a section
+      % title fails, e.g., @chapter ^ -- exponentiation.  --karl, 9jul97.
+      %\catcode`\^=7 % to see ^^e4 as \"a etc. juha@piuha.ydi.vtt.fi
+      \raggedbottom             % Worry more about breakpoints than the bottom.
+      \advance\hsize by -\contentsrightmargin % Don't use the full line length.
+      %
+      % Roman numerals for page numbers.
+      \ifnum \pageno>0 \global\pageno = \lastnegativepageno \fi
+}
+
+
+% Normal (long) toc.
+\def\contents{%
+   \startcontents{\putwordTOC}%
+     \openin 1 \jobname.toc
+     \ifeof 1 \else
+       \closein 1
+       \input \jobname.toc
+     \fi
+     \vfill \eject
+     \contentsalignmacro % in case @setchapternewpage odd is in effect
+     \pdfmakeoutlines
+   \endgroup
+   \lastnegativepageno = \pageno
+   \global\pageno = \savepageno
+}
+
+% And just the chapters.
+\def\summarycontents{%
+   \startcontents{\putwordShortTOC}%
+      %
+      \let\chapentry = \shortchapentry
+      \let\appendixentry = \shortappendixentry
+      \let\unnumbchapentry = \shortunnumberedentry
+      % We want a true roman here for the page numbers.
+      \secfonts
+      \let\rm=\shortcontrm \let\bf=\shortcontbf
+      \let\sl=\shortcontsl \let\tt=\shortconttt
+      \rm
+      \hyphenpenalty = 10000
+      \advance\baselineskip by 1pt % Open it up a little.
+      \def\secentry ##1##2##3##4{}
+      \def\subsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5{}
+      \def\subsubsecentry ##1##2##3##4##5##6{}
+      \let\unnumbsecentry = \secentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsecentry = \subsecentry
+      \let\unnumbsubsubsecentry = \subsubsecentry
+      \openin 1 \jobname.toc
+      \ifeof 1 \else
+        \closein 1
+        \input \jobname.toc
+      \fi
+     \vfill \eject
+     \contentsalignmacro % in case @setchapternewpage odd is in effect
+   \endgroup
+   \lastnegativepageno = \pageno
+   \global\pageno = \savepageno
+}
+\let\shortcontents = \summarycontents
+
+\ifpdf
+  \pdfcatalog{/PageMode /UseOutlines}%
+\fi
+
+% These macros generate individual entries in the table of contents.
+% The first argument is the chapter or section name.
+% The last argument is the page number.
+% The arguments in between are the chapter number, section number, ...
+
+% Chapters, in the main contents.
+\def\chapentry#1#2#3{\dochapentry{#2\labelspace#1}{#3}}
+%
+% Chapters, in the short toc.
+% See comments in \dochapentry re vbox and related settings.
+\def\shortchapentry#1#2#3{%
+  \tocentry{\shortchaplabel{#2}\labelspace #1}{\doshortpageno\bgroup#3\egroup}%
+}
+
+% Appendices, in the main contents.
+\def\appendixentry#1#2#3{%
+  \dochapentry{\appendixbox{\putwordAppendix{} #2}\labelspace#1}{#3}}
+%
+% Appendices, in the short toc.
+\let\shortappendixentry = \shortchapentry
+
+% Typeset the label for a chapter or appendix for the short contents.
+% The arg is, e.g., `Appendix A' for an appendix, or `3' for a chapter.
+% We could simplify the code here by writing out an \appendixentry
+% command in the toc file for appendices, instead of using \chapentry
+% for both, but it doesn't seem worth it.
+%
+\newdimen\shortappendixwidth
+%
+\def\shortchaplabel#1{%
+  % This space should be enough, since a single number is .5em, and the
+  % widest letter (M) is 1em, at least in the Computer Modern fonts.
+  % But use \hss just in case.
+  % (This space doesn't include the extra space that gets added after
+  % the label; that gets put in by \shortchapentry above.)
+  \dimen0 = 1em
+  \hbox to \dimen0{#1\hss}%
+}
+
+% Unnumbered chapters.
+\def\unnumbchapentry#1#2#3{\dochapentry{#1}{#3}}
+\def\shortunnumberedentry#1#2#3{\tocentry{#1}{\doshortpageno\bgroup#3\egroup}}
+
+% Sections.
+\def\secentry#1#2#3#4{\dosecentry{#2.#3\labelspace#1}{#4}}
+\def\unnumbsecentry#1#2#3#4{\dosecentry{#1}{#4}}
+
+% Subsections.
+\def\subsecentry#1#2#3#4#5{\dosubsecentry{#2.#3.#4\labelspace#1}{#5}}
+\def\unnumbsubsecentry#1#2#3#4#5{\dosubsecentry{#1}{#5}}
+
+% And subsubsections.
+\def\subsubsecentry#1#2#3#4#5#6{%
+  \dosubsubsecentry{#2.#3.#4.#5\labelspace#1}{#6}}
+\def\unnumbsubsubsecentry#1#2#3#4#5#6{\dosubsubsecentry{#1}{#6}}
+
+% This parameter controls the indentation of the various levels.
+\newdimen\tocindent \tocindent = 3pc
+
+% Now for the actual typesetting. In all these, #1 is the text and #2 is the
+% page number.
+%
+% If the toc has to be broken over pages, we want it to be at chapters
+% if at all possible; hence the \penalty.
+\def\dochapentry#1#2{%
+   \penalty-300 \vskip1\baselineskip plus.33\baselineskip minus.25\baselineskip
+   \begingroup
+     \chapentryfonts
+     \tocentry{#1}{\dopageno\bgroup#2\egroup}%
+   \endgroup
+   \nobreak\vskip .25\baselineskip plus.1\baselineskip
+}
+
+\def\dosecentry#1#2{\begingroup
+  \secentryfonts \leftskip=\tocindent
+  \tocentry{#1}{\dopageno\bgroup#2\egroup}%
+\endgroup}
+
+\def\dosubsecentry#1#2{\begingroup
+  \subsecentryfonts \leftskip=2\tocindent
+  \tocentry{#1}{\dopageno\bgroup#2\egroup}%
+\endgroup}
+
+\def\dosubsubsecentry#1#2{\begingroup
+  \subsubsecentryfonts \leftskip=3\tocindent
+  \tocentry{#1}{\dopageno\bgroup#2\egroup}%
+\endgroup}
+
+% Final typesetting of a toc entry; we use the same \entry macro as for
+% the index entries, but we want to suppress hyphenation here.  (We
+% can't do that in the \entry macro, since index entries might consist
+% of hyphenated-identifiers-that-do-not-fit-on-a-line-and-nothing-else.)
+\def\tocentry#1#2{\begingroup
+  \vskip 0pt plus1pt % allow a little stretch for the sake of nice page breaks
+  % Do not use \turnoffactive in these arguments.  Since the toc is
+  % typeset in cmr, characters such as _ would come out wrong; we
+  % have to do the usual translation tricks.
+  \entry{#1}{#2}%
+\endgroup}
+
+% Space between chapter (or whatever) number and the title.
+\def\labelspace{\hskip1em \relax}
+
+\def\dopageno#1{{\rm #1}}
+\def\doshortpageno#1{{\rm #1}}
+
+\def\chapentryfonts{\secfonts \rm}
+\def\secentryfonts{\textfonts}
+\let\subsecentryfonts = \textfonts
+\let\subsubsecentryfonts = \textfonts
+
+
+\message{environments,}
+% @foo ... @end foo.
+
+% @point{}, @result{}, @expansion{}, @print{}, @equiv{}.
+% 
+% Since these characters are used in examples, it should be an even number of
+% \tt widths. Each \tt character is 1en, so two makes it 1em.
+%
+\def\point{$\star$}
+\def\result{\leavevmode\raise.15ex\hbox to 1em{\hfil$\Rightarrow$\hfil}}
+\def\expansion{\leavevmode\raise.1ex\hbox to 1em{\hfil$\mapsto$\hfil}}
+\def\print{\leavevmode\lower.1ex\hbox to 1em{\hfil$\dashv$\hfil}}
+\def\equiv{\leavevmode\lower.1ex\hbox to 1em{\hfil$\ptexequiv$\hfil}}
+
+% The @error{} command.
+% Adapted from the TeXbook's \boxit.
+% 
+\newbox\errorbox
+%
+{\tentt \global\dimen0 = 3em}% Width of the box.
+\dimen2 = .55pt % Thickness of rules
+% The text. (`r' is open on the right, `e' somewhat less so on the left.)
+\setbox0 = \hbox{\kern-.75pt \tensf error\kern-1.5pt}
+%
+\global\setbox\errorbox=\hbox to \dimen0{\hfil
+   \hsize = \dimen0 \advance\hsize by -5.8pt % Space to left+right.
+   \advance\hsize by -2\dimen2 % Rules.
+   \vbox{
+      \hrule height\dimen2
+      \hbox{\vrule width\dimen2 \kern3pt          % Space to left of text.
+         \vtop{\kern2.4pt \box0 \kern2.4pt}% Space above/below.
+         \kern3pt\vrule width\dimen2}% Space to right.
+      \hrule height\dimen2}
+    \hfil}
+%
+\def\error{\leavevmode\lower.7ex\copy\errorbox}
+
+% @tex ... @end tex    escapes into raw Tex temporarily.
+% One exception: @ is still an escape character, so that @end tex works.
+% But \@ or @@ will get a plain tex @ character.
+
+\def\tex{\begingroup
+  \catcode `\\=0 \catcode `\{=1 \catcode `\}=2
+  \catcode `\$=3 \catcode `\&=4 \catcode `\#=6
+  \catcode `\^=7 \catcode `\_=8 \catcode `\~=\active \let~=\tie
+  \catcode `\%=14
+  \catcode `\+=\other
+  \catcode `\"=\other
+  \catcode `\==\other
+  \catcode `\|=\other
+  \catcode `\<=\other
+  \catcode `\>=\other
+  \escapechar=`\\
+  %
+  \let\b=\ptexb
+  \let\bullet=\ptexbullet
+  \let\c=\ptexc
+  \let\,=\ptexcomma
+  \let\.=\ptexdot
+  \let\dots=\ptexdots
+  \let\equiv=\ptexequiv
+  \let\!=\ptexexclam
+  \let\i=\ptexi
+  \let\{=\ptexlbrace
+  \let\+=\tabalign
+  \let\}=\ptexrbrace
+  \let\*=\ptexstar
+  \let\t=\ptext
+  %
+  \def\endldots{\mathinner{\ldots\ldots\ldots\ldots}}%
+  \def\enddots{\relax\ifmmode\endldots\else$\mathsurround=0pt \endldots\,$\fi}%
+  \def\@{@}%
+\let\Etex=\endgroup}
+
+% Define @lisp ... @end lisp.
+% @lisp does a \begingroup so it can rebind things,
+% including the definition of @end lisp (which normally is erroneous).
+
+% Amount to narrow the margins by for @lisp.
+\newskip\lispnarrowing \lispnarrowing=0.4in
+
+% This is the definition that ^^M gets inside @lisp, @example, and other
+% such environments.  \null is better than a space, since it doesn't
+% have any width.
+\def\lisppar{\null\endgraf}
+
+% Make each space character in the input produce a normal interword
+% space in the output.  Don't allow a line break at this space, as this
+% is used only in environments like @example, where each line of input
+% should produce a line of output anyway.
+%
+{\obeyspaces %
+\gdef\sepspaces{\obeyspaces\let =\tie}}
+
+% Define \obeyedspace to be our active space, whatever it is.  This is
+% for use in \parsearg.
+{\sepspaces%
+\global\let\obeyedspace= }
+
+% This space is always present above and below environments.
+\newskip\envskipamount \envskipamount = 0pt
+
+% Make spacing and below environment symmetrical.  We use \parskip here
+% to help in doing that, since in @example-like environments \parskip
+% is reset to zero; thus the \afterenvbreak inserts no space -- but the
+% start of the next paragraph will insert \parskip.
+%
+\def\aboveenvbreak{{%
+  % =10000 instead of <10000 because of a special case in \itemzzz, q.v.
+  \ifnum \lastpenalty=10000 \else
+    \advance\envskipamount by \parskip
+    \endgraf
+    \ifdim\lastskip<\envskipamount
+      \removelastskip
+      % it's not a good place to break if the last penalty was \nobreak
+      % or better ...
+      \ifnum\lastpenalty>10000 \else \penalty-50 \fi
+      \vskip\envskipamount
+    \fi
+  \fi
+}}
+
+\let\afterenvbreak = \aboveenvbreak
+
+% \nonarrowing is a flag.  If "set", @lisp etc don't narrow margins.
+\let\nonarrowing=\relax
+
+% @cartouche ... @end cartouche: draw rectangle w/rounded corners around
+% environment contents.
+\font\circle=lcircle10
+\newdimen\circthick
+\newdimen\cartouter\newdimen\cartinner
+\newskip\normbskip\newskip\normpskip\newskip\normlskip
+\circthick=\fontdimen8\circle
+%
+\def\ctl{{\circle\char'013\hskip -6pt}}% 6pt from pl file: 1/2charwidth
+\def\ctr{{\hskip 6pt\circle\char'010}}
+\def\cbl{{\circle\char'012\hskip -6pt}}
+\def\cbr{{\hskip 6pt\circle\char'011}}
+\def\carttop{\hbox to \cartouter{\hskip\lskip
+        \ctl\leaders\hrule height\circthick\hfil\ctr
+        \hskip\rskip}}
+\def\cartbot{\hbox to \cartouter{\hskip\lskip
+        \cbl\leaders\hrule height\circthick\hfil\cbr
+        \hskip\rskip}}
+%
+\newskip\lskip\newskip\rskip
+
+\def\cartouche{%
+\par  % can't be in the midst of a paragraph.
+\begingroup
+        \lskip=\leftskip \rskip=\rightskip
+        \leftskip=0pt\rightskip=0pt %we want these *outside*.
+        \cartinner=\hsize \advance\cartinner by-\lskip
+                          \advance\cartinner by-\rskip
+        \cartouter=\hsize
+        \advance\cartouter by 18.4pt % allow for 3pt kerns on either
+%                                    side, and for 6pt waste from
+%                                    each corner char, and rule thickness
+        \normbskip=\baselineskip \normpskip=\parskip \normlskip=\lineskip
+        % Flag to tell @lisp, etc., not to narrow margin.
+        \let\nonarrowing=\comment
+        \vbox\bgroup
+                \baselineskip=0pt\parskip=0pt\lineskip=0pt
+                \carttop
+                \hbox\bgroup
+                        \hskip\lskip
+                        \vrule\kern3pt
+                        \vbox\bgroup
+                                \hsize=\cartinner
+                                \kern3pt
+                                \begingroup
+                                        \baselineskip=\normbskip
+                                        \lineskip=\normlskip
+                                        \parskip=\normpskip
+                                        \vskip -\parskip
+\def\Ecartouche{%
+                                \endgroup
+                                \kern3pt
+                        \egroup
+                        \kern3pt\vrule
+                        \hskip\rskip
+                \egroup
+                \cartbot
+        \egroup
+\endgroup
+}}
+
+
+% This macro is called at the beginning of all the @example variants,
+% inside a group.
+\def\nonfillstart{%
+  \aboveenvbreak
+  \inENV % This group ends at the end of the body
+  \hfuzz = 12pt % Don't be fussy
+  \sepspaces % Make spaces be word-separators rather than space tokens.
+  \let\par = \lisppar % don't ignore blank lines
+  \obeylines % each line of input is a line of output
+  \parskip = 0pt
+  \parindent = 0pt
+  \emergencystretch = 0pt % don't try to avoid overfull boxes
+  % @cartouche defines \nonarrowing to inhibit narrowing
+  % at next level down.
+  \ifx\nonarrowing\relax
+    \advance \leftskip by \lispnarrowing
+    \exdentamount=\lispnarrowing
+    \let\exdent=\nofillexdent
+    \let\nonarrowing=\relax
+  \fi
+}
+
+% Define the \E... control sequence only if we are inside the particular
+% environment, so the error checking in \end will work.
+%
+% To end an @example-like environment, we first end the paragraph (via
+% \afterenvbreak's vertical glue), and then the group.  That way we keep
+% the zero \parskip that the environments set -- \parskip glue will be
+% inserted at the beginning of the next paragraph in the document, after
+% the environment.
+%
+\def\nonfillfinish{\afterenvbreak\endgroup}
+
+% @lisp: indented, narrowed, typewriter font.
+\def\lisp{\begingroup
+  \nonfillstart
+  \let\Elisp = \nonfillfinish
+  \tt
+  \let\kbdfont = \kbdexamplefont % Allow @kbd to do something special.
+  \gobble       % eat return
+}
+
+% @example: Same as @lisp.
+\def\example{\begingroup \def\Eexample{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}\lisp}
+
+% @smallexample and @smalllisp: use smaller fonts.
+% Originally contributed by Pavel@xerox.
+\def\smalllisp{\begingroup
+  \def\Esmalllisp{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}%
+  \def\Esmallexample{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}%
+  \smallexamplefonts
+  \lisp
+}
+\let\smallexample = \smalllisp
+
+
+% @display: same as @lisp except keep current font.
+%
+\def\display{\begingroup
+  \nonfillstart
+  \let\Edisplay = \nonfillfinish
+  \gobble
+}
+%
+% @smalldisplay: @display plus smaller fonts.
+%
+\def\smalldisplay{\begingroup
+  \def\Esmalldisplay{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}%
+  \smallexamplefonts \rm
+  \display
+}
+
+% @format: same as @display except don't narrow margins.
+%
+\def\format{\begingroup
+  \let\nonarrowing = t
+  \nonfillstart
+  \let\Eformat = \nonfillfinish
+  \gobble
+}
+%
+% @smallformat: @format plus smaller fonts.
+%
+\def\smallformat{\begingroup
+  \def\Esmallformat{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}%
+  \smallexamplefonts \rm
+  \format
+}
+
+% @flushleft (same as @format).
+%
+\def\flushleft{\begingroup \def\Eflushleft{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}\format}
+
+% @flushright.
+%
+\def\flushright{\begingroup
+  \let\nonarrowing = t
+  \nonfillstart
+  \let\Eflushright = \nonfillfinish
+  \advance\leftskip by 0pt plus 1fill
+  \gobble
+}
+
+
+% @quotation does normal linebreaking (hence we can't use \nonfillstart)
+% and narrows the margins.
+%
+\def\quotation{%
+  \begingroup\inENV %This group ends at the end of the @quotation body
+  {\parskip=0pt \aboveenvbreak}% because \aboveenvbreak inserts \parskip
+  \parindent=0pt
+  % We have retained a nonzero parskip for the environment, since we're
+  % doing normal filling. So to avoid extra space below the environment...
+  \def\Equotation{\parskip = 0pt \nonfillfinish}%
+  %
+  % @cartouche defines \nonarrowing to inhibit narrowing at next level down.
+  \ifx\nonarrowing\relax
+    \advance\leftskip by \lispnarrowing
+    \advance\rightskip by \lispnarrowing
+    \exdentamount = \lispnarrowing
+    \let\nonarrowing = \relax
+  \fi
+}
+
+
+% LaTeX-like @verbatim...@end verbatim and @verb{<char>...<char>}
+% If we want to allow any <char> as delimiter, 
+% we need the curly braces so that makeinfo sees the @verb command, eg:
+% `@verbx...x' would look like the '@verbx' command.  --janneke@gnu.org
+%
+% [Knuth]: Donald Ervin Knuth, 1996.  The TeXbook.
+%
+% [Knuth] p.344; only we need to do the other characters Texinfo sets
+% active too.  Otherwise, they get lost as the first character on a
+% verbatim line.
+\def\dospecials{%
+  \do\ \do\\\do\{\do\}\do\$\do\&%
+  \do\#\do\^\do\^^K\do\_\do\^^A\do\%\do\~%
+  \do\<\do\>\do\|\do\@\do+\do\"%
+}
+%
+% [Knuth] p. 380
+\def\uncatcodespecials{%
+  \def\do##1{\catcode`##1=12}\dospecials}
+%
+% [Knuth] pp. 380,381,391
+% Disable Spanish ligatures ?` and !` of \tt font
+\begingroup
+  \catcode`\`=\active\gdef`{\relax\lq}
+\endgroup
+%
+% Setup for the @verb command.
+%
+% Eight spaces for a tab
+\begingroup
+  \catcode`\^^I=\active
+  \gdef\tabeightspaces{\catcode`\^^I=\active\def^^I{\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ }}
+\endgroup
+%
+\def\setupverb{%
+  \tt  % easiest (and conventionally used) font for verbatim
+  \def\par{\leavevmode\endgraf}%
+  \catcode`\`=\active
+  \tabeightspaces
+  % Respect line breaks,
+  % print special symbols as themselves, and
+  % make each space count
+  % must do in this order:
+  \obeylines \uncatcodespecials \sepspaces
+}
+
+% Setup for the @verbatim environment
+%
+% Real tab expansion
+\newdimen\tabw \setbox0=\hbox{\tt\space} \tabw=8\wd0 % tab amount
+%
+\def\starttabbox{\setbox0=\hbox\bgroup}
+\begingroup
+  \catcode`\^^I=\active
+  \gdef\tabexpand{%
+    \catcode`\^^I=\active
+    \def^^I{\leavevmode\egroup
+      \dimen0=\wd0 % the width so far, or since the previous tab
+      \divide\dimen0 by\tabw
+      \multiply\dimen0 by\tabw % compute previous multiple of \tabw
+      \advance\dimen0 by\tabw  % advance to next multiple of \tabw
+      \wd0=\dimen0 \box0 \starttabbox
+    }%
+  }
+\endgroup
+\def\setupverbatim{%
+  % Easiest (and conventionally used) font for verbatim
+  \tt
+  \def\par{\leavevmode\egroup\box0\endgraf}%
+  \catcode`\`=\active
+  \tabexpand
+  % Respect line breaks,
+  % print special symbols as themselves, and
+  % make each space count
+  % must do in this order:
+  \obeylines \uncatcodespecials \sepspaces
+  \everypar{\starttabbox}%
+}
+
+% Do the @verb magic: verbatim text is quoted by unique 
+% delimiter characters.  Before first delimiter expect a 
+% right brace, after last delimiter expect closing brace:
+%
+%    \def\doverb'{'<char>#1<char>'}'{#1}
+%
+% [Knuth] p. 382; only eat outer {}
+\begingroup
+  \catcode`[=1\catcode`]=2\catcode`\{=12\catcode`\}=12
+  \gdef\doverb{#1[\def\next##1#1}[##1\endgroup]\next]
+\endgroup
+%
+\def\verb{\begingroup\setupverb\doverb}
+%
+%
+% Do the @verbatim magic: define the macro \doverbatim so that
+% the (first) argument ends when '@end verbatim' is reached, ie:
+%
+%     \def\doverbatim#1@end verbatim{#1}
+%
+% For Texinfo it's a lot easier than for LaTeX, 
+% because texinfo's \verbatim doesn't stop at '\end{verbatim}':
+% we need not redefine '\', '{' and '}'.
+%
+% Inspired by LaTeX's verbatim command set [latex.ltx]
+%% Include LaTeX hack for completeness -- never know
+%% \begingroup
+%% \catcode`|=0 \catcode`[=1
+%% \catcode`]=2\catcode`\{=12\catcode`\}=12\catcode`\ =\active
+%% \catcode`\\=12|gdef|doverbatim#1@end verbatim[
+%% #1|endgroup|def|Everbatim[]|end[verbatim]]
+%% |endgroup
+%
+\begingroup
+  \catcode`\ =\active
+  \obeylines %
+  % ignore everything up to the first ^^M, that's the newline at the end
+  % of the @verbatim input line itself.  Otherwise we get an extra blank
+  % line in the output.
+  \gdef\doverbatim#1^^M#2@end verbatim{#2\end{verbatim}}%
+\endgroup
+%
+\def\verbatim{%
+  \def\Everbatim{\nonfillfinish\endgroup}%
+  \begingroup
+    \nonfillstart
+    \advance\leftskip by -\defbodyindent
+    \begingroup\setupverbatim\doverbatim
+}
+
+% @verbatiminclude FILE - insert text of file in verbatim environment.
+%
+% Allow normal characters that we make active in the argument (a file name).
+\def\verbatiminclude{%
+  \begingroup
+    \catcode`\\=\other
+    \catcode`~=\other
+    \catcode`^=\other
+    \catcode`_=\other
+    \catcode`|=\other
+    \catcode`<=\other
+    \catcode`>=\other
+    \catcode`+=\other
+    \parsearg\doverbatiminclude
+}
+\def\setupverbatiminclude{%
+  \begingroup
+    \nonfillstart
+    \advance\leftskip by -\defbodyindent
+    \begingroup\setupverbatim
+}
+%
+\def\doverbatiminclude#1{%
+     % Restore active chars for included file.
+  \endgroup
+  \begingroup
+    \let\value=\expandablevalue
+    \def\thisfile{#1}%
+    \expandafter\expandafter\setupverbatiminclude\input\thisfile
+  \endgroup
+  \nonfillfinish
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @copying ... @end copying.
+% Save the text away for @insertcopying later.  Many commands won't be
+% allowed in this context, but that's ok.
+% 
+% We save the uninterpreted tokens, rather than creating a box.
+% Saving the text in a box would be much easier, but then all the
+% typesetting commands (@smallbook, font changes, etc.) have to be done
+% beforehand -- and a) we want @copying to be done first in the source
+% file; b) letting users define the frontmatter in as flexible order as
+% possible is very desirable.
+% 
+\def\copying{\begingroup
+  % Define a command to swallow text until we reach `@end copying'.
+  % \ is the escape char in this texinfo.tex file, so it is the
+  % delimiter for the command; @ will be the escape char when we read
+  % it, but that doesn't matter.
+  \long\def\docopying##1\end copying{\gdef\copyingtext{##1}\enddocopying}%
+  %
+  % We must preserve ^^M's in the input file; see \insertcopying below.
+  \catcode`\^^M = \active
+  \docopying
+}
+
+% What we do to finish off the copying text.
+%
+\def\enddocopying{\endgroup\ignorespaces}
+
+% @insertcopying.  Here we must play games with ^^M's.  On the one hand,
+% we need them to delimit commands such as `@end quotation', so they
+% must be active.  On the other hand, we certainly don't want every
+% end-of-line to be a \par, as would happen with the normal active
+% definition of ^^M.  On the third hand, two ^^M's in a row should still
+% generate a \par.
+% 
+% Our approach is to make ^^M insert a space and a penalty1 normally;
+% then it can also check if \lastpenalty=1.  If it does, then manually
+% do \par.
+% 
+% This messes up the normal definitions of @c[omment], so we redefine
+% it.  Similarly for @ignore.  (These commands are used in the gcc
+% manual for man page generation.)
+% 
+% Seems pretty fragile, most line-oriented commands will presumably
+% fail, but for the limited use of getting the copying text (which
+% should be quite simple) inserted, we can hope it's ok.
+%
+{\catcode`\^^M=\active %
+\gdef\insertcopying{\begingroup %
+  \parindent = 0pt  % looks wrong on title page
+  \def^^M{%
+    \ifnum \lastpenalty=1 %
+      \par %
+    \else %
+      \space \penalty 1 %
+    \fi %
+  }%
+  %
+  % Fix @c[omment] for catcode 13 ^^M's.
+  \def\c##1^^M{\ignorespaces}%
+  \let\comment = \c %
+  %
+  % Don't bother jumping through all the hoops that \doignore does, it
+  % would be very hard since the catcodes are already set.
+  \long\def\ignore##1\end ignore{\ignorespaces}%
+  %
+  \copyingtext %
+\endgroup}%
+}
+
+\message{defuns,}
+% @defun etc.
+
+% Allow user to change definition object font (\df) internally
+\def\setdeffont#1 {\csname DEF#1\endcsname}
+
+\newskip\defbodyindent \defbodyindent=.4in
+\newskip\defargsindent \defargsindent=50pt
+\newskip\deflastargmargin \deflastargmargin=18pt
+
+\newcount\parencount
+
+% We want ()&[] to print specially on the defun line.
+% 
+\def\activeparens{%
+  \catcode`\(=\active \catcode`\)=\active
+  \catcode`\&=\active
+  \catcode`\[=\active \catcode`\]=\active
+}
+
+% Make control sequences which act like normal parenthesis chars.
+\let\lparen = ( \let\rparen = )
+
+{\activeparens % Now, smart parens don't turn on until &foo (see \amprm)
+
+% Be sure that we always have a definition for `(', etc.  For example,
+% if the fn name has parens in it, \boldbrax will not be in effect yet,
+% so TeX would otherwise complain about undefined control sequence.
+\global\let(=\lparen \global\let)=\rparen
+\global\let[=\lbrack \global\let]=\rbrack
+
+\gdef\functionparens{\boldbrax\let&=\amprm\parencount=0 }
+\gdef\boldbrax{\let(=\opnr\let)=\clnr\let[=\lbrb\let]=\rbrb}
+% This is used to turn on special parens
+% but make & act ordinary (given that it's active).
+\gdef\boldbraxnoamp{\let(=\opnr\let)=\clnr\let[=\lbrb\let]=\rbrb\let&=\ampnr}
+
+% Definitions of (, ) and & used in args for functions.
+% This is the definition of ( outside of all parentheses.
+\gdef\oprm#1 {{\rm\char`\(}#1 \bf \let(=\opnested
+  \global\advance\parencount by 1
+}
+%
+% This is the definition of ( when already inside a level of parens.
+\gdef\opnested{\char`\(\global\advance\parencount by 1 }
+%
+\gdef\clrm{% Print a paren in roman if it is taking us back to depth of 0.
+  % also in that case restore the outer-level definition of (.
+  \ifnum \parencount=1 {\rm \char `\)}\sl \let(=\oprm \else \char `\) \fi
+  \global\advance \parencount by -1 }
+% If we encounter &foo, then turn on ()-hacking afterwards
+\gdef\amprm#1 {{\rm\&#1}\let(=\oprm \let)=\clrm\ }
+%
+\gdef\normalparens{\boldbrax\let&=\ampnr}
+} % End of definition inside \activeparens
+%% These parens (in \boldbrax) actually are a little bolder than the
+%% contained text.  This is especially needed for [ and ]
+\def\opnr{{\sf\char`\(}\global\advance\parencount by 1 }
+\def\clnr{{\sf\char`\)}\global\advance\parencount by -1 }
+\let\ampnr = \&
+\def\lbrb{{\bf\char`\[}}
+\def\rbrb{{\bf\char`\]}}
+
+% Active &'s sneak into the index arguments, so make sure it's defined.
+{
+  \catcode`& = \active
+  \global\let& = \ampnr
+}
+
+% \defname, which formats the name of the @def (not the args).
+% #1 is the function name.
+% #2 is the type of definition, such as "Function".
+%
+\def\defname#1#2{%
+  % How we'll output the type name.  Putting it in brackets helps
+  % distinguish it from the body text that may end up on the next line
+  % just below it.
+  \ifempty{#2}%
+    \def\defnametype{}%
+  \else
+    \def\defnametype{[\rm #2]}%
+  \fi
+  %
+  % Get the values of \leftskip and \rightskip as they were outside the @def...
+  \dimen2=\leftskip
+  \advance\dimen2 by -\defbodyindent
+  %
+  % Figure out values for the paragraph shape.
+  \setbox0=\hbox{\hskip \deflastargmargin{\defnametype}}%
+  \dimen0=\hsize \advance \dimen0 by -\wd0  % compute size for first line
+  \dimen1=\hsize \advance \dimen1 by -\defargsindent  % size for continuations
+  \parshape 2 0in \dimen0 \defargsindent \dimen1
+  %
+  % Output arg 2 ("Function" or some such) but stuck inside a box of
+  % width 0 so it does not interfere with linebreaking.
+  \noindent
+  %
+  {% Adjust \hsize to exclude the ambient margins,
+   % so that \rightline will obey them.
+   \advance \hsize by -\dimen2
+   \dimen3 = 0pt  % was -1.25pc
+   \rlap{\rightline{\defnametype\kern\dimen3}}%
+  }%
+  %
+  % Allow all lines to be underfull without complaint:
+  \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000
+  \advance\leftskip by -\defbodyindent
+  \exdentamount=\defbodyindent
+  {\df #1}\enskip        % output function name
+  % \defunargs will be called next to output the arguments, if any.
+}
+
+% Common pieces to start any @def...
+% #1 is the \E... control sequence to end the definition (which we define).
+% #2 is the \...x control sequence (which our caller defines).
+% #3 is the control sequence to process the header, such as \defunheader.
+% 
+\def\parsebodycommon#1#2#3{%
+  \begingroup\inENV
+  % If there are two @def commands in a row, we'll have a \nobreak,
+  % which is there to keep the function description together with its
+  % header.  But if there's nothing but headers, we want to allow a
+  % break after all.  Check for penalty 10002 (inserted by
+  % \defargscommonending) instead of 10000, since the sectioning
+  % commands insert a \penalty10000, and we don't want to allow a break
+  % between a section heading and a defun.
+  \ifnum\lastpenalty=10002 \penalty0 \fi
+  \medbreak
+  %
+  % Define the \E... end token that this defining construct specifies
+  % so that it will exit this group.
+  \def#1{\endgraf\endgroup\medbreak}%
+  %
+  \parindent=0in
+  \advance\leftskip by \defbodyindent
+  \exdentamount=\defbodyindent
+}
+
+% Common part of the \...x definitions.
+% 
+\def\defxbodycommon{%
+  % As with \parsebodycommon above, allow line break if we have multiple
+  % x headers in a row.  It's not a great place, though.
+  \ifnum\lastpenalty=10000 \penalty1000 \fi
+  %
+  \begingroup\obeylines
+}
+
+% Process body of @defun, @deffn, @defmac, etc.
+%
+\def\defparsebody#1#2#3{%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2{\defxbodycommon \activeparens \spacesplit#3}%
+  \catcode\equalChar=\active
+  \begingroup\obeylines\activeparens
+  \spacesplit#3%
+}
+
+% #1, #2, #3 are the common arguments (see \parsebodycommon above).
+% #4, delimited by the space, is the class name.
+%
+\def\defmethparsebody#1#2#3#4 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 {\defxbodycommon \activeparens \spacesplit{#3{##1}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines\activeparens
+  % The \empty here prevents misinterpretation of a construct such as
+  %   @deffn {whatever} {Enharmonic comma}
+  % See comments at \deftpparsebody, although in our case we don't have
+  % to remove the \empty afterwards, since it is empty.
+  \spacesplit{#3{#4}}\empty
+}
+
+% Used for @deftypemethod and @deftypeivar.
+% #1, #2, #3 are the common arguments (see \defparsebody).
+% #4, delimited by a space, is the class name.
+% #5 is the method's return type.
+%
+\def\deftypemethparsebody#1#2#3#4 #5 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 ##2 {\defxbodycommon \activeparens \spacesplit{#3{##1}{##2}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines\activeparens
+  \spacesplit{#3{#4}{#5}}%
+}
+
+% Used for @deftypeop.  The change from \deftypemethparsebody is an
+% extra argument at the beginning which is the `category', instead of it
+% being the hardwired string `Method' or `Instance Variable'.  We have
+% to account for this both in the \...x definition and in parsing the
+% input at hand.  Thus also need a control sequence (passed as #5) for
+% the \E... definition to assign the category name to.
+% 
+\def\deftypeopparsebody#1#2#3#4#5 #6 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 ##2 ##3 {\def#4{##1}%
+    \defxbodycommon \activeparens \spacesplit{#3{##2}{##3}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines\activeparens
+  \spacesplit{#3{#5}{#6}}%
+}
+
+% For @defop.
+\def\defopparsebody #1#2#3#4#5 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 ##2 {\def#4{##1}%
+    \defxbodycommon \activeparens \spacesplit{#3{##2}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines\activeparens
+  \spacesplit{#3{#5}}%
+}
+
+% These parsing functions are similar to the preceding ones
+% except that they do not make parens into active characters.
+% These are used for "variables" since they have no arguments.
+%
+\def\defvarparsebody #1#2#3{%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2{\defxbodycommon \spacesplit#3}%
+  \catcode\equalChar=\active
+  \begingroup\obeylines
+  \spacesplit#3%
+}
+
+% @defopvar.
+\def\defopvarparsebody #1#2#3#4#5 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 ##2 {\def#4{##1}%
+    \defxbodycommon \spacesplit{#3{##2}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines
+  \spacesplit{#3{#5}}%
+}
+
+\def\defvrparsebody#1#2#3#4 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 {\defxbodycommon \spacesplit{#3{##1}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines
+  \spacesplit{#3{#4}}%
+}
+
+% This loses on `@deftp {Data Type} {struct termios}' -- it thinks the
+% type is just `struct', because we lose the braces in `{struct
+% termios}' when \spacesplit reads its undelimited argument.  Sigh.
+% \let\deftpparsebody=\defvrparsebody
+%
+% So, to get around this, we put \empty in with the type name.  That
+% way, TeX won't find exactly `{...}' as an undelimited argument, and
+% won't strip off the braces.
+%
+\def\deftpparsebody #1#2#3#4 {%
+  \parsebodycommon{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \def#2##1 {\defxbodycommon \spacesplit{#3{##1}}}%
+  \begingroup\obeylines
+  \spacesplit{\parsetpheaderline{#3{#4}}}\empty
+}
+
+% Fine, but then we have to eventually remove the \empty *and* the
+% braces (if any).  That's what this does.
+%
+\def\removeemptybraces\empty#1\relax{#1}
+
+% After \spacesplit has done its work, this is called -- #1 is the final
+% thing to call, #2 the type name (which starts with \empty), and #3
+% (which might be empty) the arguments.
+%
+\def\parsetpheaderline#1#2#3{%
+  #1{\removeemptybraces#2\relax}{#3}%
+}%
+
+% Split up #2 (the rest of the input line) at the first space token.
+% call #1 with two arguments:
+%  the first is all of #2 before the space token,
+%  the second is all of #2 after that space token.
+% If #2 contains no space token, all of it is passed as the first arg
+% and the second is passed as empty.
+%
+{\obeylines %
+ \gdef\spacesplit#1#2^^M{\endgroup\spacesplitx{#1}#2 \relax\spacesplitx}%
+ \long\gdef\spacesplitx#1#2 #3#4\spacesplitx{%
+   \ifx\relax #3%
+     #1{#2}{}%
+   \else %
+     #1{#2}{#3#4}%
+   \fi}%
+}
+
+% Define @defun.
+
+% This is called to end the arguments processing for all the @def... commands.
+%
+\def\defargscommonending{%
+  \interlinepenalty = 10000
+  \advance\rightskip by 0pt plus 1fil
+  \endgraf
+  \nobreak\vskip -\parskip
+  \penalty 10002  % signal to \parsebodycommon.
+}
+
+% This expands the args and terminates the paragraph they comprise.
+% 
+\def\defunargs#1{\functionparens \sl
+% Expand, preventing hyphenation at `-' chars.
+% Note that groups don't affect changes in \hyphenchar.
+% Set the font temporarily and use \font in case \setfont made \tensl a macro.
+{\tensl\hyphenchar\font=0}%
+#1%
+{\tensl\hyphenchar\font=45}%
+\ifnum\parencount=0 \else \errmessage{Unbalanced parentheses in @def}\fi%
+  \defargscommonending
+}
+
+\def\deftypefunargs #1{%
+% Expand, preventing hyphenation at `-' chars.
+% Note that groups don't affect changes in \hyphenchar.
+% Use \boldbraxnoamp, not \functionparens, so that & is not special.
+\boldbraxnoamp
+\tclose{#1}% avoid \code because of side effects on active chars
+  \defargscommonending
+}
+
+% Do complete processing of one @defun or @defunx line already parsed.
+
+% @deffn Command forward-char nchars
+
+\def\deffn{\defmethparsebody\Edeffn\deffnx\deffnheader}
+
+\def\deffnheader #1#2#3{\doind {fn}{\code{#2}}%
+\begingroup\defname {#2}{#1}\defunargs{#3}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @defun == @deffn Function
+
+\def\defun{\defparsebody\Edefun\defunx\defunheader}
+
+\def\defunheader #1#2{\doind {fn}{\code{#1}}% Make entry in function index
+\begingroup\defname {#1}{\putwordDeffunc}%
+\defunargs {#2}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @deftypefun int foobar (int @var{foo}, float @var{bar})
+
+\def\deftypefun{\defparsebody\Edeftypefun\deftypefunx\deftypefunheader}
+
+% #1 is the data type.  #2 is the name and args.
+\def\deftypefunheader #1#2{\deftypefunheaderx{#1}#2 \relax}
+% #1 is the data type, #2 the name, #3 the args.
+\def\deftypefunheaderx #1#2 #3\relax{%
+\doind {fn}{\code{#2}}% Make entry in function index
+\begingroup\defname {\defheaderxcond#1\relax$.$#2}{\putwordDeftypefun}%
+\deftypefunargs {#3}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @deftypefn {Library Function} int foobar (int @var{foo}, float @var{bar})
+
+\def\deftypefn{\defmethparsebody\Edeftypefn\deftypefnx\deftypefnheader}
+
+% \defheaderxcond#1\relax$.$
+% puts #1 in @code, followed by a space, but does nothing if #1 is null.
+\def\defheaderxcond#1#2$.${\ifx#1\relax\else\code{#1#2} \fi}
+
+% #1 is the classification.  #2 is the data type.  #3 is the name and args.
+\def\deftypefnheader #1#2#3{\deftypefnheaderx{#1}{#2}#3 \relax}
+% #1 is the classification, #2 the data type, #3 the name, #4 the args.
+\def\deftypefnheaderx #1#2#3 #4\relax{%
+\doind {fn}{\code{#3}}% Make entry in function index
+\begingroup
+\normalparens % notably, turn off `&' magic, which prevents
+%               at least some C++ text from working
+\defname {\defheaderxcond#2\relax$.$#3}{#1}%
+\deftypefunargs {#4}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @defmac == @deffn Macro
+
+\def\defmac{\defparsebody\Edefmac\defmacx\defmacheader}
+
+\def\defmacheader #1#2{\doind {fn}{\code{#1}}% Make entry in function index
+\begingroup\defname {#1}{\putwordDefmac}%
+\defunargs {#2}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @defspec == @deffn Special Form
+
+\def\defspec{\defparsebody\Edefspec\defspecx\defspecheader}
+
+\def\defspecheader #1#2{\doind {fn}{\code{#1}}% Make entry in function index
+\begingroup\defname {#1}{\putwordDefspec}%
+\defunargs {#2}\endgroup %
+\catcode\equalChar=\other % Turn off change made in \defparsebody
+}
+
+% @defop CATEGORY CLASS OPERATION ARG...
+%
+\def\defop #1 {\def\defoptype{#1}%
+\defopparsebody\Edefop\defopx\defopheader\defoptype}
+%
+\def\defopheader#1#2#3{%
+  \dosubind{fn}{\code{#2}}{\putwordon\ \code{#1}}% function index entry
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{#2}{\defoptype\ \putwordon\ #1}%
+    \defunargs{#3}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @deftypeop CATEGORY CLASS TYPE OPERATION ARG...
+%
+\def\deftypeop #1 {\def\deftypeopcategory{#1}%
+  \deftypeopparsebody\Edeftypeop\deftypeopx\deftypeopheader
+                       \deftypeopcategory}
+%
+% #1 is the class name, #2 the data type, #3 the operation name, #4 the args.
+\def\deftypeopheader#1#2#3#4{%
+  \dosubind{fn}{\code{#3}}{\putwordon\ \code{#1}}% entry in function index
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{\defheaderxcond#2\relax$.$#3}
+            {\deftypeopcategory\ \putwordon\ \code{#1}}%
+    \deftypefunargs{#4}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @deftypemethod CLASS TYPE METHOD ARG...
+%
+\def\deftypemethod{%
+  \deftypemethparsebody\Edeftypemethod\deftypemethodx\deftypemethodheader}
+%
+% #1 is the class name, #2 the data type, #3 the method name, #4 the args.
+\def\deftypemethodheader#1#2#3#4{%
+  \dosubind{fn}{\code{#3}}{\putwordon\ \code{#1}}% entry in function index
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{\defheaderxcond#2\relax$.$#3}{\putwordMethodon\ \code{#1}}%
+    \deftypefunargs{#4}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @deftypeivar CLASS TYPE VARNAME
+%
+\def\deftypeivar{%
+  \deftypemethparsebody\Edeftypeivar\deftypeivarx\deftypeivarheader}
+%
+% #1 is the class name, #2 the data type, #3 the variable name.
+\def\deftypeivarheader#1#2#3{%
+  \dosubind{vr}{\code{#3}}{\putwordof\ \code{#1}}% entry in variable index
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{\defheaderxcond#2\relax$.$#3}
+            {\putwordInstanceVariableof\ \code{#1}}%
+    \defvarargs{#3}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @defmethod == @defop Method
+%
+\def\defmethod{\defmethparsebody\Edefmethod\defmethodx\defmethodheader}
+%
+% #1 is the class name, #2 the method name, #3 the args.
+\def\defmethodheader#1#2#3{%
+  \dosubind{fn}{\code{#2}}{\putwordon\ \code{#1}}% entry in function index
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{#2}{\putwordMethodon\ \code{#1}}%
+    \defunargs{#3}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @defcv {Class Option} foo-class foo-flag
+
+\def\defcv #1 {\def\defcvtype{#1}%
+\defopvarparsebody\Edefcv\defcvx\defcvarheader\defcvtype}
+
+\def\defcvarheader #1#2#3{%
+  \dosubind{vr}{\code{#2}}{\putwordof\ \code{#1}}% variable index entry
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{#2}{\defcvtype\ \putwordof\ #1}%
+    \defvarargs{#3}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @defivar CLASS VARNAME == @defcv {Instance Variable} CLASS VARNAME
+%
+\def\defivar{\defvrparsebody\Edefivar\defivarx\defivarheader}
+%
+\def\defivarheader#1#2#3{%
+  \dosubind{vr}{\code{#2}}{\putwordof\ \code{#1}}% entry in var index
+  \begingroup
+    \defname{#2}{\putwordInstanceVariableof\ #1}%
+    \defvarargs{#3}%
+  \endgroup
+}
+
+% @defvar
+% First, define the processing that is wanted for arguments of @defvar.
+% This is actually simple: just print them in roman.
+% This must expand the args and terminate the paragraph they make up
+\def\defvarargs #1{\normalparens #1%
+  \defargscommonending
+}
+
+% @defvr Counter foo-count
+
+\def\defvr{\defvrparsebody\Edefvr\defvrx\defvrheader}
+
+\def\defvrheader #1#2#3{\doind {vr}{\code{#2}}%
+\begingroup\defname {#2}{#1}\defvarargs{#3}\endgroup}
+
+% @defvar == @defvr Variable
+
+\def\defvar{\defvarparsebody\Edefvar\defvarx\defvarheader}
+
+\def\defvarheader #1#2{\doind {vr}{\code{#1}}% Make entry in var index
+\begingroup\defname {#1}{\putwordDefvar}%
+\defvarargs {#2}\endgroup %
+}
+
+% @defopt == @defvr {User Option}
+
+\def\defopt{\defvarparsebody\Edefopt\defoptx\defoptheader}
+
+\def\defoptheader #1#2{\doind {vr}{\code{#1}}% Make entry in var index
+\begingroup\defname {#1}{\putwordDefopt}%
+\defvarargs {#2}\endgroup %
+}
+
+% @deftypevar int foobar
+
+\def\deftypevar{\defvarparsebody\Edeftypevar\deftypevarx\deftypevarheader}
+
+% #1 is the data type.  #2 is the name, perhaps followed by text that
+% is actually part of the data type, which should not be put into the index.
+\def\deftypevarheader #1#2{%
+\dovarind#2 \relax% Make entry in variables index
+\begingroup\defname {\defheaderxcond#1\relax$.$#2}{\putwordDeftypevar}%
+  \defargscommonending
+\endgroup}
+\def\dovarind#1 #2\relax{\doind{vr}{\code{#1}}}
+
+% @deftypevr {Global Flag} int enable
+
+\def\deftypevr{\defvrparsebody\Edeftypevr\deftypevrx\deftypevrheader}
+
+\def\deftypevrheader #1#2#3{\dovarind#3 \relax%
+\begingroup\defname {\defheaderxcond#2\relax$.$#3}{#1}
+  \defargscommonending
+\endgroup}
+
+% Now define @deftp
+% Args are printed in bold, a slight difference from @defvar.
+
+\def\deftpargs #1{\bf \defvarargs{#1}}
+
+% @deftp Class window height width ...
+
+\def\deftp{\deftpparsebody\Edeftp\deftpx\deftpheader}
+
+\def\deftpheader #1#2#3{\doind {tp}{\code{#2}}%
+\begingroup\defname {#2}{#1}\deftpargs{#3}\endgroup}
+
+% These definitions are used if you use @defunx (etc.)
+% anywhere other than immediately after a @defun or @defunx.
+% 
+\def\defcvx#1 {\errmessage{@defcvx in invalid context}}
+\def\deffnx#1 {\errmessage{@deffnx in invalid context}}
+\def\defivarx#1 {\errmessage{@defivarx in invalid context}}
+\def\defmacx#1 {\errmessage{@defmacx in invalid context}}
+\def\defmethodx#1 {\errmessage{@defmethodx in invalid context}}
+\def\defoptx #1 {\errmessage{@defoptx in invalid context}}
+\def\defopx#1 {\errmessage{@defopx in invalid context}}
+\def\defspecx#1 {\errmessage{@defspecx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftpx#1 {\errmessage{@deftpx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypefnx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypefnx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypefunx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypefunx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypeivarx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypeivarx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypemethodx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypemethodx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypeopx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypeopx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypevarx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypevarx in invalid context}}
+\def\deftypevrx#1 {\errmessage{@deftypevrx in invalid context}}
+\def\defunx#1 {\errmessage{@defunx in invalid context}}
+\def\defvarx#1 {\errmessage{@defvarx in invalid context}}
+\def\defvrx#1 {\errmessage{@defvrx in invalid context}}
+
+
+\message{macros,}
+% @macro.
+
+% To do this right we need a feature of e-TeX, \scantokens,
+% which we arrange to emulate with a temporary file in ordinary TeX.
+\ifx\eTeXversion\undefined
+ \newwrite\macscribble
+ \def\scanmacro#1{%
+   \begingroup \newlinechar`\^^M
+   % Undo catcode changes of \startcontents and \doprintindex
+   \catcode`\@=0 \catcode`\\=\other \escapechar=`\@
+   % Append \endinput to make sure that TeX does not see the ending newline.
+   \toks0={#1\endinput}%
+   \immediate\openout\macscribble=\jobname.tmp
+   \immediate\write\macscribble{\the\toks0}%
+   \immediate\closeout\macscribble
+   \let\xeatspaces\eatspaces
+   \input \jobname.tmp
+   \endgroup
+}
+\else
+\def\scanmacro#1{%
+\begingroup \newlinechar`\^^M
+% Undo catcode changes of \startcontents and \doprintindex
+\catcode`\@=0 \catcode`\\=\other \escapechar=`\@
+\let\xeatspaces\eatspaces\scantokens{#1\endinput}\endgroup}
+\fi
+
+\newcount\paramno   % Count of parameters
+\newtoks\macname    % Macro name
+\newif\ifrecursive  % Is it recursive?
+\def\macrolist{}    % List of all defined macros in the form
+                    % \do\macro1\do\macro2...
+
+% Utility routines.
+% Thisdoes \let #1 = #2, except with \csnames.
+\def\cslet#1#2{%
+\expandafter\expandafter
+\expandafter\let
+\expandafter\expandafter
+\csname#1\endcsname
+\csname#2\endcsname}
+
+% Trim leading and trailing spaces off a string.
+% Concepts from aro-bend problem 15 (see CTAN).
+{\catcode`\@=11
+\gdef\eatspaces #1{\expandafter\trim@\expandafter{#1 }}
+\gdef\trim@ #1{\trim@@ @#1 @ #1 @ @@}
+\gdef\trim@@ #1@ #2@ #3@@{\trim@@@\empty #2 @}
+\def\unbrace#1{#1}
+\unbrace{\gdef\trim@@@ #1 } #2@{#1}
+}
+
+% Trim a single trailing ^^M off a string.
+{\catcode`\^^M=\other \catcode`\Q=3%
+\gdef\eatcr #1{\eatcra #1Q^^MQ}%
+\gdef\eatcra#1^^MQ{\eatcrb#1Q}%
+\gdef\eatcrb#1Q#2Q{#1}%
+}
+
+% Macro bodies are absorbed as an argument in a context where
+% all characters are catcode 10, 11 or 12, except \ which is active
+% (as in normal texinfo). It is necessary to change the definition of \.
+
+% It's necessary to have hard CRs when the macro is executed. This is
+% done by  making ^^M (\endlinechar) catcode 12 when reading the macro
+% body, and then making it the \newlinechar in \scanmacro.
+
+\def\macrobodyctxt{%
+  \catcode`\~=\other
+  \catcode`\^=\other
+  \catcode`\_=\other
+  \catcode`\|=\other
+  \catcode`\<=\other
+  \catcode`\>=\other
+  \catcode`\+=\other
+  \catcode`\{=\other
+  \catcode`\}=\other
+  \catcode`\@=\other
+  \catcode`\^^M=\other
+  \usembodybackslash}
+
+\def\macroargctxt{%
+  \catcode`\~=\other
+  \catcode`\^=\other
+  \catcode`\_=\other
+  \catcode`\|=\other
+  \catcode`\<=\other
+  \catcode`\>=\other
+  \catcode`\+=\other
+  \catcode`\@=\other
+  \catcode`\\=\other}
+
+% \mbodybackslash is the definition of \ in @macro bodies.
+% It maps \foo\ => \csname macarg.foo\endcsname => #N
+% where N is the macro parameter number.
+% We define \csname macarg.\endcsname to be \realbackslash, so
+% \\ in macro replacement text gets you a backslash.
+
+{\catcode`@=0 @catcode`@\=@active
+ @gdef@usembodybackslash{@let\=@mbodybackslash}
+ @gdef@mbodybackslash#1\{@csname macarg.#1@endcsname}
+}
+\expandafter\def\csname macarg.\endcsname{\realbackslash}
+
+\def\macro{\recursivefalse\parsearg\macroxxx}
+\def\rmacro{\recursivetrue\parsearg\macroxxx}
+
+\def\macroxxx#1{%
+  \getargs{#1}%           now \macname is the macname and \argl the arglist
+  \ifx\argl\empty       % no arguments
+     \paramno=0%
+  \else
+     \expandafter\parsemargdef \argl;%
+  \fi
+  \if1\csname ismacro.\the\macname\endcsname
+     \message{Warning: redefining \the\macname}%
+  \else
+     \expandafter\ifx\csname \the\macname\endcsname \relax
+     \else \errmessage{Macro name \the\macname\space already defined}\fi
+     \global\cslet{macsave.\the\macname}{\the\macname}%
+     \global\expandafter\let\csname ismacro.\the\macname\endcsname=1%
+     % Add the macroname to \macrolist
+     \toks0 = \expandafter{\macrolist\do}%
+     \xdef\macrolist{\the\toks0
+       \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname\endcsname}%
+  \fi
+  \begingroup \macrobodyctxt
+  \ifrecursive \expandafter\parsermacbody
+  \else \expandafter\parsemacbody
+  \fi}
+
+\def\unmacro{\parsearg\dounmacro}
+\def\dounmacro#1{%
+  \if1\csname ismacro.#1\endcsname
+    \global\cslet{#1}{macsave.#1}%
+    \global\expandafter\let \csname ismacro.#1\endcsname=0%
+    % Remove the macro name from \macrolist:
+    \begingroup
+      \expandafter\let\csname#1\endcsname \relax
+      \let\do\unmacrodo
+      \xdef\macrolist{\macrolist}%
+    \endgroup
+  \else
+    \errmessage{Macro #1 not defined}%
+  \fi
+}
+
+% Called by \do from \dounmacro on each macro.  The idea is to omit any
+% macro definitions that have been changed to \relax.
+% 
+\def\unmacrodo#1{%
+  \ifx#1\relax
+    % remove this
+  \else
+    \noexpand\do \noexpand #1%
+  \fi
+}
+
+% This makes use of the obscure feature that if the last token of a
+% <parameter list> is #, then the preceding argument is delimited by
+% an opening brace, and that opening brace is not consumed.
+\def\getargs#1{\getargsxxx#1{}}
+\def\getargsxxx#1#{\getmacname #1 \relax\getmacargs}
+\def\getmacname #1 #2\relax{\macname={#1}}
+\def\getmacargs#1{\def\argl{#1}}
+
+% Parse the optional {params} list.  Set up \paramno and \paramlist
+% so \defmacro knows what to do.  Define \macarg.blah for each blah
+% in the params list, to be ##N where N is the position in that list.
+% That gets used by \mbodybackslash (above).
+
+% We need to get `macro parameter char #' into several definitions.
+% The technique used is stolen from LaTeX:  let \hash be something
+% unexpandable, insert that wherever you need a #, and then redefine
+% it to # just before using the token list produced.
+%
+% The same technique is used to protect \eatspaces till just before
+% the macro is used.
+
+\def\parsemargdef#1;{\paramno=0\def\paramlist{}%
+        \let\hash\relax\let\xeatspaces\relax\parsemargdefxxx#1,;,}
+\def\parsemargdefxxx#1,{%
+  \if#1;\let\next=\relax
+  \else \let\next=\parsemargdefxxx
+    \advance\paramno by 1%
+    \expandafter\edef\csname macarg.\eatspaces{#1}\endcsname
+        {\xeatspaces{\hash\the\paramno}}%
+    \edef\paramlist{\paramlist\hash\the\paramno,}%
+  \fi\next}
+
+% These two commands read recursive and nonrecursive macro bodies.
+% (They're different since rec and nonrec macros end differently.)
+
+\long\def\parsemacbody#1@end macro%
+{\xdef\temp{\eatcr{#1}}\endgroup\defmacro}%
+\long\def\parsermacbody#1@end rmacro%
+{\xdef\temp{\eatcr{#1}}\endgroup\defmacro}%
+
+% This defines the macro itself. There are six cases: recursive and
+% nonrecursive macros of zero, one, and many arguments.
+% Much magic with \expandafter here.
+% \xdef is used so that macro definitions will survive the file
+% they're defined in; @include reads the file inside a group.
+\def\defmacro{%
+  \let\hash=##% convert placeholders to macro parameter chars
+  \ifrecursive
+    \ifcase\paramno
+    % 0
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+        \noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}}%
+    \or % 1
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+         \bgroup\noexpand\macroargctxt
+         \noexpand\braceorline
+         \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname}%
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname##1{%
+         \egroup\noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}}%
+    \else % many
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+         \bgroup\noexpand\macroargctxt
+         \noexpand\csname\the\macname xx\endcsname}%
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname xx\endcsname##1{%
+          \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname ##1,}%
+      \expandafter\expandafter
+      \expandafter\xdef
+      \expandafter\expandafter
+        \csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname
+          \paramlist{\egroup\noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}}%
+    \fi
+  \else
+    \ifcase\paramno
+    % 0
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+        \noexpand\norecurse{\the\macname}%
+        \noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}\egroup}%
+    \or % 1
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+         \bgroup\noexpand\macroargctxt
+         \noexpand\braceorline
+         \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname}%
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname##1{%
+        \egroup
+        \noexpand\norecurse{\the\macname}%
+        \noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}\egroup}%
+    \else % many
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname\endcsname{%
+         \bgroup\noexpand\macroargctxt
+         \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname xx\endcsname}%
+      \expandafter\xdef\csname\the\macname xx\endcsname##1{%
+          \expandafter\noexpand\csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname ##1,}%
+      \expandafter\expandafter
+      \expandafter\xdef
+      \expandafter\expandafter
+      \csname\the\macname xxx\endcsname
+      \paramlist{%
+          \egroup
+          \noexpand\norecurse{\the\macname}%
+          \noexpand\scanmacro{\temp}\egroup}%
+    \fi
+  \fi}
+
+\def\norecurse#1{\bgroup\cslet{#1}{macsave.#1}}
+
+% \braceorline decides whether the next nonwhitespace character is a
+% {.  If so it reads up to the closing }, if not, it reads the whole
+% line.  Whatever was read is then fed to the next control sequence
+% as an argument (by \parsebrace or \parsearg)
+\def\braceorline#1{\let\next=#1\futurelet\nchar\braceorlinexxx}
+\def\braceorlinexxx{%
+  \ifx\nchar\bgroup\else
+    \expandafter\parsearg
+  \fi \next}
+
+% We mant to disable all macros during \shipout so that they are not
+% expanded by \write.
+\def\turnoffmacros{\begingroup \def\do##1{\let\noexpand##1=\relax}%
+  \edef\next{\macrolist}\expandafter\endgroup\next}
+
+
+% @alias.
+% We need some trickery to remove the optional spaces around the equal
+% sign.  Just make them active and then expand them all to nothing.
+\def\alias{\begingroup\obeyspaces\parsearg\aliasxxx}
+\def\aliasxxx #1{\aliasyyy#1\relax}
+\def\aliasyyy #1=#2\relax{\ignoreactivespaces
+\edef\next{\global\let\expandafter\noexpand\csname#1\endcsname=%
+           \expandafter\noexpand\csname#2\endcsname}%
+\expandafter\endgroup\next}
+
+
+\message{cross references,}
+% @xref etc.
+
+\newwrite\auxfile
+
+\newif\ifhavexrefs    % True if xref values are known.
+\newif\ifwarnedxrefs  % True if we warned once that they aren't known.
+
+% @inforef is relatively simple.
+\def\inforef #1{\inforefzzz #1,,,,**}
+\def\inforefzzz #1,#2,#3,#4**{\putwordSee{} \putwordInfo{} \putwordfile{} \file{\ignorespaces #3{}},
+  node \samp{\ignorespaces#1{}}}
+
+% @node's job is to define \lastnode.
+\def\node{\ENVcheck\parsearg\nodezzz}
+\def\nodezzz#1{\nodexxx [#1,]}
+\def\nodexxx[#1,#2]{\gdef\lastnode{#1}}
+\let\nwnode=\node
+\let\lastnode=\relax
+
+% The sectioning commands (@chapter, etc.) call these.
+\def\donoderef{%
+  \ifx\lastnode\relax\else
+    \expandafter\expandafter\expandafter\setref{\lastnode}%
+      {Ysectionnumberandtype}%
+    \global\let\lastnode=\relax
+  \fi
+}
+\def\unnumbnoderef{%
+  \ifx\lastnode\relax\else
+    \expandafter\expandafter\expandafter\setref{\lastnode}{Ynothing}%
+    \global\let\lastnode=\relax
+  \fi
+}
+\def\appendixnoderef{%
+  \ifx\lastnode\relax\else
+    \expandafter\expandafter\expandafter\setref{\lastnode}%
+      {Yappendixletterandtype}%
+    \global\let\lastnode=\relax
+  \fi
+}
+
+
+% @anchor{NAME} -- define xref target at arbitrary point.
+%
+\newcount\savesfregister
+\gdef\savesf{\relax \ifhmode \savesfregister=\spacefactor \fi}
+\gdef\restoresf{\relax \ifhmode \spacefactor=\savesfregister \fi}
+\gdef\anchor#1{\savesf \setref{#1}{Ynothing}\restoresf \ignorespaces}
+
+% \setref{NAME}{SNT} defines a cross-reference point NAME (a node or an
+% anchor), namely NAME-title (the corresponding @chapter/etc. name),
+% NAME-pg (the page number), and NAME-snt (section number and type).
+% Called from \foonoderef.
+% 
+% We have to set \indexdummies so commands such as @code in a section
+% title aren't expanded.  It would be nicer not to expand the titles in
+% the first place, but there's so many layers that that is hard to do.
+%
+% Likewise, use \turnoffactive so that punctuation chars such as underscore
+% and backslash work in node names.
+% 
+\def\setref#1#2{{%
+  \atdummies
+  \pdfmkdest{#1}%
+  %
+  \turnoffactive
+  \dosetq{#1-title}{Ytitle}%
+  \dosetq{#1-pg}{Ypagenumber}%
+  \dosetq{#1-snt}{#2}%
+}}
+
+% @xref, @pxref, and @ref generate cross-references.  For \xrefX, #1 is
+% the node name, #2 the name of the Info cross-reference, #3 the printed
+% node name, #4 the name of the Info file, #5 the name of the printed
+% manual.  All but the node name can be omitted.
+%
+\def\pxref#1{\putwordsee{} \xrefX[#1,,,,,,,]}
+\def\xref#1{\putwordSee{} \xrefX[#1,,,,,,,]}
+\def\ref#1{\xrefX[#1,,,,,,,]}
+\def\xrefX[#1,#2,#3,#4,#5,#6]{\begingroup
+  \unsepspaces
+  \def\printedmanual{\ignorespaces #5}%
+  \def\printednodename{\ignorespaces #3}%
+  \setbox1=\hbox{\printedmanual}%
+  \setbox0=\hbox{\printednodename}%
+  \ifdim \wd0 = 0pt
+    % No printed node name was explicitly given.
+    \expandafter\ifx\csname SETxref-automatic-section-title\endcsname\relax
+      % Use the node name inside the square brackets.
+      \def\printednodename{\ignorespaces #1}%
+    \else
+      % Use the actual chapter/section title appear inside
+      % the square brackets.  Use the real section title if we have it.
+      \ifdim \wd1 > 0pt
+        % It is in another manual, so we don't have it.
+        \def\printednodename{\ignorespaces #1}%
+      \else
+        \ifhavexrefs
+          % We know the real title if we have the xref values.
+          \def\printednodename{\refx{#1-title}{}}%
+        \else
+          % Otherwise just copy the Info node name.
+          \def\printednodename{\ignorespaces #1}%
+        \fi%
+      \fi
+    \fi
+  \fi
+  %
+  % If we use \unhbox0 and \unhbox1 to print the node names, TeX does not
+  % insert empty discretionaries after hyphens, which means that it will
+  % not find a line break at a hyphen in a node names.  Since some manuals
+  % are best written with fairly long node names, containing hyphens, this
+  % is a loss.  Therefore, we give the text of the node name again, so it
+  % is as if TeX is seeing it for the first time.
+  \ifpdf
+    \leavevmode
+    \getfilename{#4}%
+    {\turnoffactive \otherbackslash
+     \ifnum\filenamelength>0
+       \startlink attr{/Border [0 0 0]}%
+         goto file{\the\filename.pdf} name{#1}%
+     \else
+       \startlink attr{/Border [0 0 0]}%
+         goto name{#1}%
+     \fi
+    }%
+    \linkcolor
+  \fi
+  %
+  \ifdim \wd1 > 0pt
+    \putwordsection{} ``\printednodename'' \putwordin{} \cite{\printedmanual}%
+  \else
+    % _ (for example) has to be the character _ for the purposes of the
+    % control sequence corresponding to the node, but it has to expand
+    % into the usual \leavevmode...\vrule stuff for purposes of
+    % printing. So we \turnoffactive for the \refx-snt, back on for the
+    % printing, back off for the \refx-pg.
+    {\turnoffactive \otherbackslash
+     % Only output a following space if the -snt ref is nonempty; for
+     % @unnumbered and @anchor, it won't be.
+     \setbox2 = \hbox{\ignorespaces \refx{#1-snt}{}}%
+     \ifdim \wd2 > 0pt \refx{#1-snt}\space\fi
+    }%
+    % [mynode],
+    [\printednodename],\space
+    % page 3
+    \turnoffactive \otherbackslash \putwordpage\tie\refx{#1-pg}{}%
+  \fi
+  \endlink
+\endgroup}
+
+% \dosetq is called from \setref to do the actual \write (\iflinks).
+%
+\def\dosetq#1#2{%
+  {\let\folio=0%
+   \edef\next{\write\auxfile{\internalsetq{#1}{#2}}}%
+   \iflinks \next \fi
+  }%
+}
+
+% \internalsetq{foo}{page} expands into
+%   CHARACTERS @xrdef{foo}{...expansion of \page...}
+\def\internalsetq#1#2{@xrdef{#1}{\csname #2\endcsname}}
+
+% Things to be expanded by \internalsetq.
+% 
+\def\Ypagenumber{\folio}
+\def\Ytitle{\thissection}
+\def\Ynothing{}
+\def\Ysectionnumberandtype{%
+  \ifnum\secno=0
+    \putwordChapter@tie \the\chapno
+  \else \ifnum\subsecno=0
+    \putwordSection@tie \the\chapno.\the\secno
+  \else \ifnum\subsubsecno=0
+    \putwordSection@tie \the\chapno.\the\secno.\the\subsecno
+  \else
+    \putwordSection@tie \the\chapno.\the\secno.\the\subsecno.\the\subsubsecno
+  \fi\fi\fi
+}
+
+\def\Yappendixletterandtype{%
+  \ifnum\secno=0
+     \putwordAppendix@tie @char\the\appendixno{}%
+  \else \ifnum\subsecno=0
+     \putwordSection@tie @char\the\appendixno.\the\secno
+  \else \ifnum\subsubsecno=0
+    \putwordSection@tie @char\the\appendixno.\the\secno.\the\subsecno
+  \else
+    \putwordSection@tie
+      @char\the\appendixno.\the\secno.\the\subsecno.\the\subsubsecno
+  \fi\fi\fi
+}
+
+% Use TeX 3.0's \inputlineno to get the line number, for better error
+% messages, but if we're using an old version of TeX, don't do anything.
+%
+\ifx\inputlineno\thisisundefined
+  \let\linenumber = \empty % Pre-3.0.
+\else
+  \def\linenumber{\the\inputlineno:\space}
+\fi
+
+% Define \refx{NAME}{SUFFIX} to reference a cross-reference string named NAME.
+% If its value is nonempty, SUFFIX is output afterward.
+%
+\def\refx#1#2{%
+  {%
+    \indexnofonts
+    \otherbackslash
+    \expandafter\global\expandafter\let\expandafter\thisrefX
+      \csname X#1\endcsname
+  }%
+  \ifx\thisrefX\relax
+    % If not defined, say something at least.
+    \angleleft un\-de\-fined\angleright
+    \iflinks
+      \ifhavexrefs
+        \message{\linenumber Undefined cross reference `#1'.}%
+      \else
+        \ifwarnedxrefs\else
+          \global\warnedxrefstrue
+          \message{Cross reference values unknown; you must run TeX again.}%
+        \fi
+      \fi
+    \fi
+  \else
+    % It's defined, so just use it.
+    \thisrefX
+  \fi
+  #2% Output the suffix in any case.
+}
+
+% This is the macro invoked by entries in the aux file.
+%
+\def\xrdef#1{\expandafter\gdef\csname X#1\endcsname}
+
+% Read the last existing aux file, if any.  No error if none exists.
+\def\readauxfile{\begingroup
+  \catcode`\^^@=\other
+  \catcode`\^^A=\other
+  \catcode`\^^B=\other
+  \catcode`\^^C=\other
+  \catcode`\^^D=\other
+  \catcode`\^^E=\other
+  \catcode`\^^F=\other
+  \catcode`\^^G=\other
+  \catcode`\^^H=\other
+  \catcode`\^^K=\other
+  \catcode`\^^L=\other
+  \catcode`\^^N=\other
+  \catcode`\^^P=\other
+  \catcode`\^^Q=\other
+  \catcode`\^^R=\other
+  \catcode`\^^S=\other
+  \catcode`\^^T=\other
+  \catcode`\^^U=\other
+  \catcode`\^^V=\other
+  \catcode`\^^W=\other
+  \catcode`\^^X=\other
+  \catcode`\^^Z=\other
+  \catcode`\^^[=\other
+  \catcode`\^^\=\other
+  \catcode`\^^]=\other
+  \catcode`\^^^=\other
+  \catcode`\^^_=\other
+  % It was suggested to set the catcode of ^ to 7, which would allow ^^e4 etc.
+  % in xref tags, i.e., node names.  But since ^^e4 notation isn't
+  % supported in the main text, it doesn't seem desirable.  Furthermore,
+  % that is not enough: for node names that actually contain a ^
+  % character, we would end up writing a line like this: 'xrdef {'hat
+  % b-title}{'hat b} and \xrdef does a \csname...\endcsname on the first
+  % argument, and \hat is not an expandable control sequence.  It could
+  % all be worked out, but why?  Either we support ^^ or we don't.
+  %
+  % The other change necessary for this was to define \auxhat:
+  % \def\auxhat{\def^{'hat }}% extra space so ok if followed by letter
+  % and then to call \auxhat in \setq.
+  %
+  \catcode`\^=\other
+  %
+  % Special characters.  Should be turned off anyway, but...
+  \catcode`\~=\other
+  \catcode`\[=\other
+  \catcode`\]=\other
+  \catcode`\"=\other
+  \catcode`\_=\other
+  \catcode`\|=\other
+  \catcode`\<=\other
+  \catcode`\>=\other
+  \catcode`\$=\other
+  \catcode`\#=\other
+  \catcode`\&=\other
+  \catcode`\%=\other
+  \catcode`+=\other % avoid \+ for paranoia even though we've turned it off
+  %
+  % Make the characters 128-255 be printing characters
+  {%
+    \count 1=128
+    \def\loop{%
+      \catcode\count 1=\other
+      \advance\count 1 by 1
+      \ifnum \count 1<256 \loop \fi
+    }%
+  }%
+  %
+  % Turn off \ as an escape so we do not lose on
+  % entries which were dumped with control sequences in their names.
+  % For example, @xrdef{$\leq $-fun}{page ...} made by @defun ^^
+  % Reference to such entries still does not work the way one would wish,
+  % but at least they do not bomb out when the aux file is read in.
+  \catcode`\\=\other
+  %
+  % @ is our escape character in .aux files.
+  \catcode`\{=1
+  \catcode`\}=2
+  \catcode`\@=0
+  %
+  \openin 1 \jobname.aux
+  \ifeof 1 \else
+    \closein 1
+    \input \jobname.aux
+    \global\havexrefstrue
+    \global\warnedobstrue
+  \fi
+  % Open the new aux file.  TeX will close it automatically at exit.
+  \openout\auxfile=\jobname.aux
+\endgroup}
+
+
+% Footnotes.
+
+\newcount \footnoteno
+
+% The trailing space in the following definition for supereject is
+% vital for proper filling; pages come out unaligned when you do a
+% pagealignmacro call if that space before the closing brace is
+% removed. (Generally, numeric constants should always be followed by a
+% space to prevent strange expansion errors.)
+\def\supereject{\par\penalty -20000\footnoteno =0 }
+
+% @footnotestyle is meaningful for info output only.
+\let\footnotestyle=\comment
+
+\let\ptexfootnote=\footnote
+
+{\catcode `\@=11
+%
+% Auto-number footnotes.  Otherwise like plain.
+\gdef\footnote{%
+  \global\advance\footnoteno by \@ne
+  \edef\thisfootno{$^{\the\footnoteno}$}%
+  %
+  % In case the footnote comes at the end of a sentence, preserve the
+  % extra spacing after we do the footnote number.
+  \let\@sf\empty
+  \ifhmode\edef\@sf{\spacefactor\the\spacefactor}\/\fi
+  %
+  % Remove inadvertent blank space before typesetting the footnote number.
+  \unskip
+  \thisfootno\@sf
+  \dofootnote
+}%
+
+% Don't bother with the trickery in plain.tex to not require the
+% footnote text as a parameter.  Our footnotes don't need to be so general.
+%
+% Oh yes, they do; otherwise, @ifset and anything else that uses
+% \parseargline fail inside footnotes because the tokens are fixed when
+% the footnote is read.  --karl, 16nov96.
+%
+% The start of the footnote looks usually like this:
+\gdef\startfootins{\insert\footins\bgroup}
+%
+% ... but this macro is redefined inside @multitable.
+%
+\gdef\dofootnote{%
+  \startfootins
+  % We want to typeset this text as a normal paragraph, even if the
+  % footnote reference occurs in (for example) a display environment.
+  % So reset some parameters.
+  \hsize=\pagewidth
+  \interlinepenalty\interfootnotelinepenalty
+  \splittopskip\ht\strutbox % top baseline for broken footnotes
+  \splitmaxdepth\dp\strutbox
+  \floatingpenalty\@MM
+  \leftskip\z@skip
+  \rightskip\z@skip
+  \spaceskip\z@skip
+  \xspaceskip\z@skip
+  \parindent\defaultparindent
+  %
+  \smallfonts \rm
+  %
+  % Because we use hanging indentation in footnotes, a @noindent appears
+  % to exdent this text, so make it be a no-op.  makeinfo does not use
+  % hanging indentation so @noindent can still be needed within footnote
+  % text after an @example or the like (not that this is good style).
+  \let\noindent = \relax
+  %
+  % Hang the footnote text off the number.  Use \everypar in case the
+  % footnote extends for more than one paragraph.
+  \everypar = {\hang}%
+  \textindent{\thisfootno}%
+  %
+  % Don't crash into the line above the footnote text.  Since this
+  % expands into a box, it must come within the paragraph, lest it
+  % provide a place where TeX can split the footnote.
+  \footstrut
+  \futurelet\next\fo@t
+}
+}%end \catcode `\@=11
+
+% @| inserts a changebar to the left of the current line.  It should
+% surround any changed text.  This approach does *not* work if the
+% change spans more than two lines of output.  To handle that, we would
+% have adopt a much more difficult approach (putting marks into the main
+% vertical list for the beginning and end of each change).
+%
+\def\|{%
+  % \vadjust can only be used in horizontal mode.
+  \leavevmode
+  %
+  % Append this vertical mode material after the current line in the output.
+  \vadjust{%
+    % We want to insert a rule with the height and depth of the current
+    % leading; that is exactly what \strutbox is supposed to record.
+    \vskip-\baselineskip
+    %
+    % \vadjust-items are inserted at the left edge of the type.  So
+    % the \llap here moves out into the left-hand margin.
+    \llap{%
+      %
+      % For a thicker or thinner bar, change the `1pt'.
+      \vrule height\baselineskip width1pt
+      %
+      % This is the space between the bar and the text.
+      \hskip 12pt
+    }%
+  }%
+}
+
+% For a final copy, take out the rectangles
+% that mark overfull boxes (in case you have decided
+% that the text looks ok even though it passes the margin).
+%
+\def\finalout{\overfullrule=0pt}
+
+% @image.  We use the macros from epsf.tex to support this.
+% If epsf.tex is not installed and @image is used, we complain.
+%
+% Check for and read epsf.tex up front.  If we read it only at @image
+% time, we might be inside a group, and then its definitions would get
+% undone and the next image would fail.
+\openin 1 = epsf.tex
+\ifeof 1 \else
+  \closein 1
+  % Do not bother showing banner with epsf.tex v2.7k (available in
+  % doc/epsf.tex and on ctan).
+  \def\epsfannounce{\toks0 = }%
+  \input epsf.tex
+\fi
+%
+% We will only complain once about lack of epsf.tex.
+\newif\ifwarnednoepsf
+\newhelp\noepsfhelp{epsf.tex must be installed for images to
+  work.  It is also included in the Texinfo distribution, or you can get
+  it from ftp://tug.org/tex/epsf.tex.}
+%
+\def\image#1{%
+  \ifx\epsfbox\undefined
+    \ifwarnednoepsf \else
+      \errhelp = \noepsfhelp
+      \errmessage{epsf.tex not found, images will be ignored}%
+      \global\warnednoepsftrue
+    \fi
+  \else
+    \imagexxx #1,,,,,\finish
+  \fi
+}
+%
+% Arguments to @image:
+% #1 is (mandatory) image filename; we tack on .eps extension.
+% #2 is (optional) width, #3 is (optional) height.
+% #4 is (ignored optional) html alt text.
+% #5 is (ignored optional) extension.
+% #6 is just the usual extra ignored arg for parsing this stuff.
+\newif\ifimagevmode
+\def\imagexxx#1,#2,#3,#4,#5,#6\finish{\begingroup
+  \catcode`\^^M = 5     % in case we're inside an example
+  \normalturnoffactive  % allow _ et al. in names
+  % If the image is by itself, center it.
+  \ifvmode
+    \imagevmodetrue
+    \nobreak\bigskip
+    % Usually we'll have text after the image which will insert
+    % \parskip glue, so insert it here too to equalize the space
+    % above and below. 
+    \nobreak\vskip\parskip
+    \nobreak
+    \line\bgroup\hss
+  \fi
+  %
+  % Output the image.
+  \ifpdf
+    \dopdfimage{#1}{#2}{#3}%
+  \else
+    % \epsfbox itself resets \epsf?size at each figure.
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #2}\ifdim\wd0 > 0pt \epsfxsize=#2\relax \fi
+    \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #3}\ifdim\wd0 > 0pt \epsfysize=#3\relax \fi
+    \epsfbox{#1.eps}%
+  \fi
+  %
+  \ifimagevmode \hss \egroup \bigbreak \fi  % space after the image
+\endgroup}
+
+
+\message{localization,}
+% and i18n.
+
+% @documentlanguage is usually given very early, just after
+% @setfilename.  If done too late, it may not override everything
+% properly.  Single argument is the language abbreviation.
+% It would be nice if we could set up a hyphenation file here.
+%
+\def\documentlanguage{\parsearg\dodocumentlanguage}
+\def\dodocumentlanguage#1{%
+  \tex % read txi-??.tex file in plain TeX.
+  % Read the file if it exists.
+  \openin 1 txi-#1.tex
+  \ifeof1
+    \errhelp = \nolanghelp
+    \errmessage{Cannot read language file txi-#1.tex}%
+    \let\temp = \relax
+  \else
+    \def\temp{\input txi-#1.tex }%
+  \fi
+  \temp
+  \endgroup
+}
+\newhelp\nolanghelp{The given language definition file cannot be found or
+is empty.  Maybe you need to install it?  In the current directory
+should work if nowhere else does.}
+
+
+% @documentencoding should change something in TeX eventually, most
+% likely, but for now just recognize it.
+\let\documentencoding = \comment
+
+
+% Page size parameters.
+%
+\newdimen\defaultparindent \defaultparindent = 15pt
+
+\chapheadingskip = 15pt plus 4pt minus 2pt
+\secheadingskip = 12pt plus 3pt minus 2pt
+\subsecheadingskip = 9pt plus 2pt minus 2pt
+
+% Prevent underfull vbox error messages.
+\vbadness = 10000
+
+% Don't be so finicky about underfull hboxes, either.
+\hbadness = 2000
+
+% Following George Bush, just get rid of widows and orphans.
+\widowpenalty=10000
+\clubpenalty=10000
+
+% Use TeX 3.0's \emergencystretch to help line breaking, but if we're
+% using an old version of TeX, don't do anything.  We want the amount of
+% stretch added to depend on the line length, hence the dependence on
+% \hsize.  We call this whenever the paper size is set.
+%
+\def\setemergencystretch{%
+  \ifx\emergencystretch\thisisundefined
+    % Allow us to assign to \emergencystretch anyway.
+    \def\emergencystretch{\dimen0}%
+  \else
+    \emergencystretch = .15\hsize
+  \fi
+}
+
+% Parameters in order: 1) textheight; 2) textwidth; 3) voffset;
+% 4) hoffset; 5) binding offset; 6) topskip; 7) physical page height; 8)
+% physical page width.
+% 
+% We also call \setleading{\textleading}, so the caller should define
+% \textleading.  The caller should also set \parskip.
+%
+\def\internalpagesizes#1#2#3#4#5#6#7#8{%
+  \voffset = #3\relax
+  \topskip = #6\relax
+  \splittopskip = \topskip
+  %
+  \vsize = #1\relax
+  \advance\vsize by \topskip
+  \outervsize = \vsize
+  \advance\outervsize by 2\topandbottommargin
+  \pageheight = \vsize
+  %
+  \hsize = #2\relax
+  \outerhsize = \hsize
+  \advance\outerhsize by 0.5in
+  \pagewidth = \hsize
+  %
+  \normaloffset = #4\relax
+  \bindingoffset = #5\relax
+  %
+  \ifpdf
+    \pdfpageheight #7\relax
+    \pdfpagewidth #8\relax
+  \fi
+  %
+  \setleading{\textleading}
+  %
+  \parindent = \defaultparindent
+  \setemergencystretch
+}
+
+% @letterpaper (the default).
+\def\letterpaper{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \parskip = 3pt plus 2pt minus 1pt
+  \textleading = 13.2pt
+  %
+  % If page is nothing but text, make it come out even.
+  \internalpagesizes{46\baselineskip}{6in}%
+                    {\voffset}{.25in}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{36pt}%
+                    {11in}{8.5in}%
+}}
+
+% Use @smallbook to reset parameters for 7x9.5 (or so) format.
+\def\smallbook{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \parskip = 2pt plus 1pt
+  \textleading = 12pt
+  %
+  \internalpagesizes{7.5in}{5in}%
+                    {\voffset}{.25in}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{16pt}%
+                    {9.25in}{7in}%
+  %
+  \lispnarrowing = 0.3in
+  \tolerance = 700
+  \hfuzz = 1pt
+  \contentsrightmargin = 0pt
+  \defbodyindent = .5cm
+}}
+
+% Use @afourpaper to print on European A4 paper.
+\def\afourpaper{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \parskip = 3pt plus 2pt minus 1pt
+  \textleading = 13.2pt
+  %
+  % Double-side printing via postscript on Laserjet 4050 
+  % prints double-sided nicely when \bindingoffset=10mm and \hoffset=-6mm.
+  % To change the settings for a different printer or situation, adjust
+  % \normaloffset until the front-side and back-side texts align.  Then
+  % do the same for \bindingoffset.  You can set these for testing in
+  % your texinfo source file like this:
+  % @tex
+  % \global\normaloffset = -6mm
+  % \global\bindingoffset = 10mm
+  % @end tex
+  \internalpagesizes{51\baselineskip}{160mm}
+                    {\voffset}{\hoffset}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{44pt}%
+                    {297mm}{210mm}%
+  %
+  \tolerance = 700
+  \hfuzz = 1pt
+  \contentsrightmargin = 0pt
+  \defbodyindent = 5mm
+}}
+
+% Use @afivepaper to print on European A5 paper.
+% From romildo@urano.iceb.ufop.br, 2 July 2000.
+% He also recommends making @example and @lisp be small.
+\def\afivepaper{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \parskip = 2pt plus 1pt minus 0.1pt
+  \textleading = 12.5pt
+  %
+  \internalpagesizes{160mm}{120mm}%
+                    {\voffset}{\hoffset}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{8pt}%
+                    {210mm}{148mm}%
+  %
+  \lispnarrowing = 0.2in
+  \tolerance = 800
+  \hfuzz = 1.2pt
+  \contentsrightmargin = 0pt
+  \defbodyindent = 2mm
+  \tableindent = 12mm
+}}
+
+% A specific text layout, 24x15cm overall, intended for A4 paper.  
+\def\afourlatex{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \afourpaper
+  \internalpagesizes{237mm}{150mm}%
+                    {\voffset}{4.6mm}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{7mm}%
+                    {297mm}{210mm}%
+  %
+  % Must explicitly reset to 0 because we call \afourpaper.
+  \globaldefs = 0
+}}
+
+% Use @afourwide to print on A4 paper in landscape format.
+\def\afourwide{{\globaldefs = 1
+  \afourpaper
+  \internalpagesizes{241mm}{165mm}%
+                    {\voffset}{-2.95mm}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{7mm}%
+                    {297mm}{210mm}%
+  \globaldefs = 0
+}}
+
+% @pagesizes TEXTHEIGHT[,TEXTWIDTH]
+% Perhaps we should allow setting the margins, \topskip, \parskip,
+% and/or leading, also. Or perhaps we should compute them somehow.
+%
+\def\pagesizes{\parsearg\pagesizesxxx}
+\def\pagesizesxxx#1{\pagesizesyyy #1,,\finish}
+\def\pagesizesyyy#1,#2,#3\finish{{%
+  \setbox0 = \hbox{\ignorespaces #2}\ifdim\wd0 > 0pt \hsize=#2\relax \fi
+  \globaldefs = 1
+  %
+  \parskip = 3pt plus 2pt minus 1pt
+  \setleading{\textleading}%
+  %
+  \dimen0 = #1
+  \advance\dimen0 by \voffset
+  %
+  \dimen2 = \hsize
+  \advance\dimen2 by \normaloffset
+  %
+  \internalpagesizes{#1}{\hsize}%
+                    {\voffset}{\normaloffset}%
+                    {\bindingoffset}{44pt}%
+                    {\dimen0}{\dimen2}%
+}}
+
+% Set default to letter.
+%
+\letterpaper
+
+
+\message{and turning on texinfo input format.}
+
+% Define macros to output various characters with catcode for normal text.
+\catcode`\"=\other
+\catcode`\~=\other
+\catcode`\^=\other
+\catcode`\_=\other
+\catcode`\|=\other
+\catcode`\<=\other
+\catcode`\>=\other
+\catcode`\+=\other
+\catcode`\$=\other
+\def\normaldoublequote{"}
+\def\normaltilde{~}
+\def\normalcaret{^}
+\def\normalunderscore{_}
+\def\normalverticalbar{|}
+\def\normalless{<}
+\def\normalgreater{>}
+\def\normalplus{+}
+\def\normaldollar{$}%$ font-lock fix
+
+% This macro is used to make a character print one way in ttfont
+% where it can probably just be output, and another way in other fonts,
+% where something hairier probably needs to be done.
+%
+% #1 is what to print if we are indeed using \tt; #2 is what to print
+% otherwise.  Since all the Computer Modern typewriter fonts have zero
+% interword stretch (and shrink), and it is reasonable to expect all
+% typewriter fonts to have this, we can check that font parameter.
+%
+\def\ifusingtt#1#2{\ifdim \fontdimen3\font=0pt #1\else #2\fi}
+
+% Same as above, but check for italic font.  Actually this also catches
+% non-italic slanted fonts since it is impossible to distinguish them from
+% italic fonts.  But since this is only used by $ and it uses \sl anyway
+% this is not a problem.
+\def\ifusingit#1#2{\ifdim \fontdimen1\font>0pt #1\else #2\fi}
+
+% Turn off all special characters except @
+% (and those which the user can use as if they were ordinary).
+% Most of these we simply print from the \tt font, but for some, we can
+% use math or other variants that look better in normal text.
+
+\catcode`\"=\active
+\def\activedoublequote{{\tt\char34}}
+\let"=\activedoublequote
+\catcode`\~=\active
+\def~{{\tt\char126}}
+\chardef\hat=`\^
+\catcode`\^=\active
+\def^{{\tt \hat}}
+
+\catcode`\_=\active
+\def_{\ifusingtt\normalunderscore\_}
+% Subroutine for the previous macro.
+\def\_{\leavevmode \kern.07em \vbox{\hrule width.3em height.1ex}\kern .07em }
+
+\catcode`\|=\active
+\def|{{\tt\char124}}
+\chardef \less=`\<
+\catcode`\<=\active
+\def<{{\tt \less}}
+\chardef \gtr=`\>
+\catcode`\>=\active
+\def>{{\tt \gtr}}
+\catcode`\+=\active
+\def+{{\tt \char 43}}
+\catcode`\$=\active
+\def${\ifusingit{{\sl\$}}\normaldollar}%$ font-lock fix
+
+% Set up an active definition for =, but don't enable it most of the time.
+{\catcode`\==\active
+\global\def={{\tt \char 61}}}
+
+\catcode`+=\active
+\catcode`\_=\active
+
+% If a .fmt file is being used, characters that might appear in a file
+% name cannot be active until we have parsed the command line.
+% So turn them off again, and have \everyjob (or @setfilename) turn them on.
+% \otherifyactive is called near the end of this file.
+\def\otherifyactive{\catcode`+=\other \catcode`\_=\other}
+
+\catcode`\@=0
+
+% \rawbackslashxx outputs one backslash character in current font,
+% as in \char`\\.
+\global\chardef\rawbackslashxx=`\\
+
+% \rawbackslash defines an active \ to do \rawbackslashxx.
+% \otherbackslash defines an active \ to be a literal `\' character with
+% catcode other.
+{\catcode`\\=\active
+ @gdef@rawbackslash{@let\=@rawbackslashxx}
+ @gdef@otherbackslash{@let\=@realbackslash}
+}
+
+% \realbackslash is an actual character `\' with catcode other.
+{\catcode`\\=\other @gdef@realbackslash{\}}
+
+% \normalbackslash outputs one backslash in fixed width font.
+\def\normalbackslash{{\tt\rawbackslashxx}}
+
+\catcode`\\=\active
+
+% Used sometimes to turn off (effectively) the active characters
+% even after parsing them.
+@def@turnoffactive{%
+  @let"=@normaldoublequote
+  @let\=@realbackslash
+  @let~=@normaltilde
+  @let^=@normalcaret
+  @let_=@normalunderscore
+  @let|=@normalverticalbar
+  @let<=@normalless
+  @let>=@normalgreater
+  @let+=@normalplus
+  @let$=@normaldollar %$ font-lock fix
+}
+
+% Same as @turnoffactive except outputs \ as {\tt\char`\\} instead of
+% the literal character `\'.  (Thus, \ is not expandable when this is in
+% effect.)
+% 
+@def@normalturnoffactive{@turnoffactive @let\=@normalbackslash}
+
+% Make _ and + \other characters, temporarily.
+% This is canceled by @fixbackslash.
+@otherifyactive
+
+% If a .fmt file is being used, we don't want the `\input texinfo' to show up.
+% That is what \eatinput is for; after that, the `\' should revert to printing
+% a backslash.
+%
+@gdef@eatinput input texinfo{@fixbackslash}
+@global@let\ = @eatinput
+
+% On the other hand, perhaps the file did not have a `\input texinfo'. Then
+% the first `\{ in the file would cause an error. This macro tries to fix
+% that, assuming it is called before the first `\' could plausibly occur.
+% Also back turn on active characters that might appear in the input
+% file name, in case not using a pre-dumped format.
+%
+@gdef@fixbackslash{%
+  @ifx\@eatinput @let\ = @normalbackslash @fi
+  @catcode`+=@active
+  @catcode`@_=@active
+}
+
+% Say @foo, not \foo, in error messages.
+@escapechar = `@@
+
+% These look ok in all fonts, so just make them not special.  
+@catcode`@& = @other
+@catcode`@# = @other
+@catcode`@% = @other
+
+@c Set initial fonts.
+@textfonts
+@rm
+
+
+@c Local variables:
+@c eval: (add-hook 'write-file-hooks 'time-stamp)
+@c page-delimiter: "^\\\\message"
+@c time-stamp-start: "def\\\\texinfoversion{"
+@c time-stamp-format: "%:y-%02m-%02d.%02H"
+@c time-stamp-end: "}"
+@c End:
diff --git a/doc/version.texi b/doc/version.texi
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f769a19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/doc/version.texi
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+@ignore
+Copyright (C) 1988-2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+@end ignore
+
+@set LASTCHANGE Mon Sep  5 11:47:04 EDT 2005
+
+@set EDITION 3.1-beta1
+@set VERSION 3.1-beta1
+@set UPDATED 5 September 2005
+@set UPDATED-MONTH September 2005