move towards user-data being binary

UrlResponse: biggest change... make readurl return bytes, making user
             know what to do with it.
util: add load_tfile_or_url for loading text file or url
      as  read_file_or_url now returns bytes

ec2_utils: all meta-data is text, remove non-obvious string translations
DigitalOcean: adjust for ec2_utils

DataSourceGCE, DataSourceMAAS: user-data is binary other fields are text.
openstack.py: read paths without decoding to text.  This is ok as paths
              other than user-data are json, and load_json will handle

load_file still returns text, and that is what most things use.

16 files changed, 91 insertions, 55 deletions

diff --git a/cloudinit/ec2_utils.py b/cloudinit/ec2_utils.py
index e1ed4091..7cf99186 100644
--- a/cloudinit/ec2_utils.py
+++ b/cloudinit/ec2_utils.py
@@ -41,6 +41,10 @@ class MetadataLeafDecoder(object):
     def __call__(self, field, blob):
         if not blob:
             return blob
+        try:
+            blob = util.decode_binary(blob)
+        except UnicodeDecodeError:
+            return blob
         if self._maybe_json_object(blob):
             try:
                 # Assume it's json, unless it fails parsing...
@@ -69,6 +73,8 @@ class MetadataMaterializer(object):
     def _parse(self, blob):
         leaves = {}
         children = []
+        blob = util.decode_binary(blob)
+
         if not blob:
             return (leaves, children)
 
@@ -117,12 +123,12 @@ class MetadataMaterializer(object):
             child_url = url_helper.combine_url(base_url, c)
             if not child_url.endswith("/"):
                 child_url += "/"
-            child_blob = str(self._caller(child_url))
+            child_blob = self._caller(child_url)
             child_contents[c] = self._materialize(child_blob, child_url)
         leaf_contents = {}
         for (field, resource) in leaves.items():
             leaf_url = url_helper.combine_url(base_url, resource)
-            leaf_blob = self._caller(leaf_url).contents
+            leaf_blob = self._caller(leaf_url)
             leaf_contents[field] = self._leaf_decoder(field, leaf_blob)
         joined = {}
         joined.update(child_contents)
@@ -179,11 +185,13 @@ def get_instance_metadata(api_version='latest',
     caller = functools.partial(util.read_file_or_url,
                                ssl_details=ssl_details, timeout=timeout,
                                retries=retries)
+    def mcaller(url):
+        return caller(url).contents
 
     try:
         response = caller(md_url)
         materializer = MetadataMaterializer(response.contents,
-                                            md_url, caller,
+                                            md_url, mcaller,
                                             leaf_decoder=leaf_decoder)
         md = materializer.materialize()
         if not isinstance(md, (dict)):
diff --git a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceDigitalOcean.py b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceDigitalOcean.py
index 76ddaa9d..5d47564d 100644
--- a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceDigitalOcean.py
+++ b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceDigitalOcean.py
@@ -54,9 +54,13 @@ class DataSourceDigitalOcean(sources.DataSource):
     def get_data(self):
         caller = functools.partial(util.read_file_or_url,
                                    timeout=self.timeout, retries=self.retries)
-        md = ec2_utils.MetadataMaterializer(str(caller(self.metadata_address)),
+
+        def mcaller(url):
+            return caller(url).contents
+
+        md = ec2_utils.MetadataMaterializer(mcaller(self.metadata_address),
                                             base_url=self.metadata_address,
-                                            caller=caller)
+                                            caller=mcaller)
 
         self.metadata = md.materialize()
 
diff --git a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceGCE.py b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceGCE.py
index 6936c74e..608c07f1 100644
--- a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceGCE.py
+++ b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceGCE.py
@@ -53,15 +53,15 @@ class DataSourceGCE(sources.DataSource):
         # GCE metadata server requires a custom header since v1
         headers = {'X-Google-Metadata-Request': True}
 
-        # url_map: (our-key, path, required)
+        # url_map: (our-key, path, required, is_text)
         url_map = [
-            ('instance-id', 'instance/id', True),
-            ('availability-zone', 'instance/zone', True),
-            ('local-hostname', 'instance/hostname', True),
-            ('public-keys', 'project/attributes/sshKeys', False),
-            ('user-data', 'instance/attributes/user-data', False),
+            ('instance-id', 'instance/id', True, True),
+            ('availability-zone', 'instance/zone', True, True),
+            ('local-hostname', 'instance/hostname', True, True),
+            ('public-keys', 'project/attributes/sshKeys', False, True),
+            ('user-data', 'instance/attributes/user-data', False, False),
             ('user-data-encoding', 'instance/attributes/user-data-encoding',
-             False),
+             False, True),
         ]
 
         # if we cannot resolve the metadata server, then no point in trying
@@ -71,13 +71,16 @@ class DataSourceGCE(sources.DataSource):
 
         # iterate over url_map keys to get metadata items
         found = False
-        for (mkey, path, required) in url_map:
+        for (mkey, path, required, is_text) in url_map:
             try:
                 resp = url_helper.readurl(url=self.metadata_address + path,
                                           headers=headers)
                 if resp.code == 200:
                     found = True
-                    self.metadata[mkey] = resp.contents
+                    if is_text:
+                        self.metadata[mkey] = util.decode_binary(resp.contents)
+                    else:
+                        self.metadata[mkey] = resp.contents
                 else:
                     if required:
                         msg = "required url %s returned code %s. not GCE"
diff --git a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceMAAS.py b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceMAAS.py
index 082cc58f..35c5b5e1 100644
--- a/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceMAAS.py
+++ b/cloudinit/sources/DataSourceMAAS.py
@@ -36,6 +36,8 @@ from cloudinit import util
 LOG = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 MD_VERSION = "2012-03-01"
 
+BINARY_FIELDS = ('user-data',)
+
 
 class DataSourceMAAS(sources.DataSource):
     """
@@ -185,7 +187,9 @@ def read_maas_seed_dir(seed_d):
     md = {}
     for fname in files:
         try:
-            md[fname] = util.load_file(os.path.join(seed_d, fname))
+            print("fname: %s / %s" % (fname, fname not in BINARY_FIELDS))
+            md[fname] = util.load_file(os.path.join(seed_d, fname),
+                                       decode=fname not in BINARY_FIELDS)
         except IOError as e:
             if e.errno != errno.ENOENT:
                 raise
@@ -218,6 +222,7 @@ def read_maas_seed_url(seed_url, header_cb=None, timeout=None,
         'public-keys': "%s/%s" % (base_url, 'meta-data/public-keys'),
         'user-data': "%s/%s" % (base_url, 'user-data'),
     }
+
     md = {}
     for name in file_order:
         url = files.get(name)
@@ -238,7 +243,10 @@ def read_maas_seed_url(seed_url, header_cb=None, timeout=None,
                                          timeout=timeout,
                                          ssl_details=ssl_details)
             if resp.ok():
-                md[name] = str(resp)
+                if name in BINARY_FIELDS:
+                    md[name] = resp.contents
+                else:
+                    md[name] = util.decode_binary(resp.contents)
             else:
                 LOG.warn(("Fetching from %s resulted in"
                           " an invalid http code %s"), url, resp.code)
@@ -263,7 +271,7 @@ def check_seed_contents(content, seed):
     if len(missing):
         raise MAASSeedDirMalformed("%s: missing files %s" % (seed, missing))
 
-    userdata = content.get('user-data', "")
+    userdata = content.get('user-data', b"")
     md = {}
     for (key, val) in content.items():
         if key == 'user-data':
diff --git a/cloudinit/sources/helpers/openstack.py b/cloudinit/sources/helpers/openstack.py
index 88c7a198..bd93d22f 100644
--- a/cloudinit/sources/helpers/openstack.py
+++ b/cloudinit/sources/helpers/openstack.py
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ class ConfigDriveReader(BaseReader):
         return os.path.join(*components)
 
     def _path_read(self, path):
-        return util.load_file(path)
+        return util.load_file(path, decode=False)
 
     def _fetch_available_versions(self):
         if self._versions is None:
diff --git a/cloudinit/url_helper.py b/cloudinit/url_helper.py
index 62001dff..2d81a062 100644
--- a/cloudinit/url_helper.py
+++ b/cloudinit/url_helper.py
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ class UrlResponse(object):
 
     @property
     def contents(self):
-        return self._response.text
+        return self._response.content
 
     @property
     def url(self):
diff --git a/cloudinit/util.py b/cloudinit/util.py
index 4fbdf0a9..efbc3c8d 100644
--- a/cloudinit/util.py
+++ b/cloudinit/util.py
@@ -739,6 +739,10 @@ def fetch_ssl_details(paths=None):
     return ssl_details
 
 
+def load_tfile_or_url(*args, **kwargs):
+    return(decode_binary(read_file_or_url(*args, **kwargs).contents))
+
+
 def read_file_or_url(url, timeout=5, retries=10,
                      headers=None, data=None, sec_between=1, ssl_details=None,
                      headers_cb=None, exception_cb=None):
@@ -750,7 +754,7 @@ def read_file_or_url(url, timeout=5, retries=10,
             LOG.warn("Unable to post data to file resource %s", url)
         file_path = url[len("file://"):]
         try:
-            contents = load_file(file_path)
+            contents = load_file(file_path, decode=False)
         except IOError as e:
             code = e.errno
             if e.errno == errno.ENOENT:
@@ -806,7 +810,7 @@ def read_seeded(base="", ext="", timeout=5, retries=10, file_retries=0):
         ud_url = "%s%s%s" % (base, "user-data", ext)
         md_url = "%s%s%s" % (base, "meta-data", ext)
 
-    md_resp = read_file_or_url(md_url, timeout, retries, file_retries)
+    md_resp = load_tfile_or_url(md_url, timeout, retries, file_retries)
     md = None
     if md_resp.ok():
         md = load_yaml(md_resp.contents, default={})
@@ -815,6 +819,7 @@ def read_seeded(base="", ext="", timeout=5, retries=10, file_retries=0):
     ud = None
     if ud_resp.ok():
         ud = ud_resp.contents
+    print("returning %s (%s)" % (ud_resp.contents.__class__, ud_resp.contents))
 
     return (md, ud)
 
@@ -2030,7 +2035,7 @@ def pathprefix2dict(base, required=None, optional=None, delim=os.path.sep):
     ret = {}
     for f in required + optional:
         try:
-            ret[f] = load_file(base + delim + f, quiet=False)
+            ret[f] = load_file(base + delim + f, quiet=False, decode=False)
         except IOError as e:
             if e.errno != errno.ENOENT:
                 raise
diff --git a/tests/unittests/helpers.py b/tests/unittests/helpers.py
index 7516bd02..24e1e881 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/helpers.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/helpers.py
@@ -288,7 +288,10 @@ def populate_dir(path, files):
         os.makedirs(path)
     for (name, content) in files.items():
         with open(os.path.join(path, name), "wb") as fp:
-            fp.write(content.encode('utf-8'))
+            if isinstance(content, six.binary_type):
+                fp.write(content)
+            else:
+                fp.write(content.encode('utf-8'))
             fp.close()
 
 
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_configdrive.py b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_configdrive.py
index e28bdd84..83aca505 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_configdrive.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_configdrive.py
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ from copy import copy
 import json
 import os
 import shutil
+import six
 import tempfile
 
 try:
@@ -45,7 +46,7 @@ EC2_META = {
     'reservation-id': 'r-iru5qm4m',
     'security-groups': ['default']
 }
-USER_DATA = '#!/bin/sh\necho This is user data\n'
+USER_DATA = b'#!/bin/sh\necho This is user data\n'
 OSTACK_META = {
     'availability_zone': 'nova',
     'files': [{'content_path': '/content/0000', 'path': '/etc/foo.cfg'},
@@ -56,8 +57,8 @@ OSTACK_META = {
     'public_keys': {'mykey': PUBKEY},
     'uuid': 'b0fa911b-69d4-4476-bbe2-1c92bff6535c'}
 
-CONTENT_0 = 'This is contents of /etc/foo.cfg\n'
-CONTENT_1 = '# this is /etc/bar/bar.cfg\n'
+CONTENT_0 = b'This is contents of /etc/foo.cfg\n'
+CONTENT_1 = b'# this is /etc/bar/bar.cfg\n'
 
 CFG_DRIVE_FILES_V2 = {
   'ec2/2009-04-04/meta-data.json': json.dumps(EC2_META),
@@ -346,8 +347,12 @@ def populate_dir(seed_dir, files):
         dirname = os.path.dirname(path)
         if not os.path.isdir(dirname):
             os.makedirs(dirname)
-        with open(path, "w") as fp:
+        if isinstance(content, six.text_type):
+            mode = "w"
+        else:
+            mode = "wb"
+
+        with open(path, mode) as fp:
             fp.write(content)
-            fp.close()
 
 # vi: ts=4 expandtab
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_gce.py b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_gce.py
index 6dd4b5ed..d28f3b08 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_gce.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_gce.py
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ GCE_META = {
     'instance/zone': 'foo/bar',
     'project/attributes/sshKeys': 'user:ssh-rsa AA2..+aRD0fyVw== root@server',
     'instance/hostname': 'server.project-foo.local',
-    'instance/attributes/user-data': '/bin/echo foo\n',
+    'instance/attributes/user-data': b'/bin/echo foo\n',
 }
 
 GCE_META_PARTIAL = {
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_maas.py b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_maas.py
index d25e1adc..f109bb04 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_maas.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_maas.py
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class TestMAASDataSource(TestCase):
 
         data = {'instance-id': 'i-valid01',
             'local-hostname': 'valid01-hostname',
-            'user-data': 'valid01-userdata',
+            'user-data': b'valid01-userdata',
             'public-keys': 'ssh-rsa AAAAB3Nz...aC1yc2E= keyname'}
 
         my_d = os.path.join(self.tmp, "valid")
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ class TestMAASDataSource(TestCase):
 
         data = {'instance-id': 'i-valid-extra',
             'local-hostname': 'valid-extra-hostname',
-            'user-data': 'valid-extra-userdata', 'foo': 'bar'}
+            'user-data': b'valid-extra-userdata', 'foo': 'bar'}
 
         my_d = os.path.join(self.tmp, "valid_extra")
         populate_dir(my_d, data)
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ class TestMAASDataSource(TestCase):
             'meta-data/instance-id': 'i-instanceid',
             'meta-data/local-hostname': 'test-hostname',
             'meta-data/public-keys': 'test-hostname',
-            'user-data': 'foodata',
+            'user-data': b'foodata',
             }
         valid_order = [
             'meta-data/local-hostname',
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ class TestMAASDataSource(TestCase):
             userdata, metadata = DataSourceMAAS.read_maas_seed_url(
                 my_seed, header_cb=my_headers_cb, version=my_ver)
 
-            self.assertEqual("foodata", userdata)
+            self.assertEqual(b"foodata", userdata)
             self.assertEqual(metadata['instance-id'],
                              valid['meta-data/instance-id'])
             self.assertEqual(metadata['local-hostname'],
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_nocloud.py b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_nocloud.py
index 4f967f58..85b4c25a 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_nocloud.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_nocloud.py
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ class TestNoCloudDataSource(TestCase):
 
     def test_nocloud_seed_dir(self):
         md = {'instance-id': 'IID', 'dsmode': 'local'}
-        ud = "USER_DATA_HERE"
+        ud = b"USER_DATA_HERE"
         populate_dir(os.path.join(self.paths.seed_dir, "nocloud"),
                      {'user-data': ud, 'meta-data': yaml.safe_dump(md)})
 
@@ -92,20 +92,20 @@ class TestNoCloudDataSource(TestCase):
         data = {
             'fs_label': None,
             'meta-data': yaml.safe_dump({'instance-id': 'IID'}),
-            'user-data': "USER_DATA_RAW",
+            'user-data': b"USER_DATA_RAW",
         }
 
         sys_cfg = {'datasource': {'NoCloud': data}}
         dsrc = ds(sys_cfg=sys_cfg, distro=None, paths=self.paths)
         ret = dsrc.get_data()
-        self.assertEqual(dsrc.userdata_raw, "USER_DATA_RAW")
+        self.assertEqual(dsrc.userdata_raw, b"USER_DATA_RAW")
         self.assertEqual(dsrc.metadata.get('instance-id'), 'IID')
         self.assertTrue(ret)
 
     def test_nocloud_seed_with_vendordata(self):
         md = {'instance-id': 'IID', 'dsmode': 'local'}
-        ud = "USER_DATA_HERE"
-        vd = "THIS IS MY VENDOR_DATA"
+        ud = b"USER_DATA_HERE"
+        vd = b"THIS IS MY VENDOR_DATA"
 
         populate_dir(os.path.join(self.paths.seed_dir, "nocloud"),
                      {'user-data': ud, 'meta-data': yaml.safe_dump(md),
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ class TestNoCloudDataSource(TestCase):
 
     def test_nocloud_no_vendordata(self):
         populate_dir(os.path.join(self.paths.seed_dir, "nocloud"),
-                     {'user-data': "ud", 'meta-data': "instance-id: IID\n"})
+                     {'user-data': b"ud", 'meta-data': "instance-id: IID\n"})
 
         sys_cfg = {'datasource': {'NoCloud': {'fs_label': None}}}
 
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ class TestNoCloudDataSource(TestCase):
 
         dsrc = ds(sys_cfg=sys_cfg, distro=None, paths=self.paths)
         ret = dsrc.get_data()
-        self.assertEqual(dsrc.userdata_raw, "ud")
+        self.assertEqual(dsrc.userdata_raw, b"ud")
         self.assertFalse(dsrc.vendordata)
         self.assertTrue(ret)
 
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_openstack.py b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_openstack.py
index 81ef1546..81411ced 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_openstack.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_datasource/test_openstack.py
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ EC2_META = {
     'public-ipv4': '0.0.0.1',
     'reservation-id': 'r-iru5qm4m',
 }
-USER_DATA = '#!/bin/sh\necho This is user data\n'
+USER_DATA = b'#!/bin/sh\necho This is user data\n'
 VENDOR_DATA = {
     'magic': '',
 }
@@ -63,8 +63,8 @@ OSTACK_META = {
     'public_keys': {'mykey': PUBKEY},
     'uuid': 'b0fa911b-69d4-4476-bbe2-1c92bff6535c',
 }
-CONTENT_0 = 'This is contents of /etc/foo.cfg\n'
-CONTENT_1 = '# this is /etc/bar/bar.cfg\n'
+CONTENT_0 = b'This is contents of /etc/foo.cfg\n'
+CONTENT_1 = b'# this is /etc/bar/bar.cfg\n'
 OS_FILES = {
     'openstack/latest/meta_data.json': json.dumps(OSTACK_META),
     'openstack/latest/user_data': USER_DATA,
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_ec2_util.py b/tests/unittests/test_ec2_util.py
index 84aa002e..bd43accf 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_ec2_util.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_ec2_util.py
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ class TestEc2Util(helpers.HttprettyTestCase):
                         body='stuff',
                         status=200)
         userdata = eu.get_instance_userdata(self.VERSION)
-        self.assertEquals('stuff', userdata)
+        self.assertEquals('stuff', userdata.decode('utf-8'))
 
     @hp.activate
     def test_userdata_fetch_fail_not_found(self):
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_handler/test_handler_apt_configure.py b/tests/unittests/test_handler/test_handler_apt_configure.py
index d8fe9a4f..02cad8b2 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_handler/test_handler_apt_configure.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_handler/test_handler_apt_configure.py
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ class TestAptProxyConfig(TestCase):
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.pfile))
         self.assertFalse(os.path.isfile(self.cfile))
 
-        contents = str(util.read_file_or_url(self.pfile))
+        contents = util.load_tfile_or_url(self.pfile)
         self.assertTrue(self._search_apt_config(contents, "http", "myproxy"))
 
     def test_apt_http_proxy_written(self):
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ class TestAptProxyConfig(TestCase):
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.pfile))
         self.assertFalse(os.path.isfile(self.cfile))
 
-        contents = str(util.read_file_or_url(self.pfile))
+        contents = util.load_tfile_or_url(self.pfile)
         self.assertTrue(self._search_apt_config(contents, "http", "myproxy"))
 
     def test_apt_all_proxy_written(self):
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ class TestAptProxyConfig(TestCase):
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.pfile))
         self.assertFalse(os.path.isfile(self.cfile))
 
-        contents = str(util.read_file_or_url(self.pfile))
+        contents = util.load_tfile_or_url(self.pfile)
 
         for ptype, pval in values.items():
             self.assertTrue(self._search_apt_config(contents, ptype, pval))
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ class TestAptProxyConfig(TestCase):
         cc_apt_configure.apply_apt_config({'apt_proxy': "foo"},
                                           self.pfile, self.cfile)
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.pfile))
-        contents = str(util.read_file_or_url(self.pfile))
+        contents = util.load_tfile_or_url(self.pfile)
         self.assertTrue(self._search_apt_config(contents, "http", "foo"))
 
     def test_config_written(self):
@@ -86,14 +86,14 @@ class TestAptProxyConfig(TestCase):
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.cfile))
         self.assertFalse(os.path.isfile(self.pfile))
 
-        self.assertEqual(str(util.read_file_or_url(self.cfile)), payload)
+        self.assertEqual(util.load_tfile_or_url(self.cfile), payload)
 
     def test_config_replaced(self):
         util.write_file(self.pfile, "content doesnt matter")
         cc_apt_configure.apply_apt_config({'apt_config': "foo"},
                                           self.pfile, self.cfile)
         self.assertTrue(os.path.isfile(self.cfile))
-        self.assertEqual(str(util.read_file_or_url(self.cfile)), "foo")
+        self.assertEqual(util.load_tfile_or_url(self.cfile), "foo")
 
     def test_config_deleted(self):
         # if no 'apt_config' is provided, delete any previously written file
diff --git a/tests/unittests/test_pathprefix2dict.py b/tests/unittests/test_pathprefix2dict.py
index 7089bde6..38fd75b6 100644
--- a/tests/unittests/test_pathprefix2dict.py
+++ b/tests/unittests/test_pathprefix2dict.py
@@ -14,28 +14,28 @@ class TestPathPrefix2Dict(TestCase):
         self.addCleanup(shutil.rmtree, self.tmp)
 
     def test_required_only(self):
-        dirdata = {'f1': 'f1content', 'f2': 'f2content'}
+        dirdata = {'f1': b'f1content', 'f2': b'f2content'}
         populate_dir(self.tmp, dirdata)
 
         ret = util.pathprefix2dict(self.tmp, required=['f1', 'f2'])
         self.assertEqual(dirdata, ret)
 
     def test_required_missing(self):
-        dirdata = {'f1': 'f1content'}
+        dirdata = {'f1': b'f1content'}
         populate_dir(self.tmp, dirdata)
         kwargs = {'required': ['f1', 'f2']}
         self.assertRaises(ValueError, util.pathprefix2dict, self.tmp, **kwargs)
 
     def test_no_required_and_optional(self):
-        dirdata = {'f1': 'f1c', 'f2': 'f2c'}
+        dirdata = {'f1': b'f1c', 'f2': b'f2c'}
         populate_dir(self.tmp, dirdata)
 
         ret = util.pathprefix2dict(self.tmp, required=None,
-                                  optional=['f1', 'f2'])
+                                   optional=['f1', 'f2'])
         self.assertEqual(dirdata, ret)
 
     def test_required_and_optional(self):
-        dirdata = {'f1': 'f1c', 'f2': 'f2c'}
+        dirdata = {'f1': b'f1c', 'f2': b'f2c'}
         populate_dir(self.tmp, dirdata)
 
         ret = util.pathprefix2dict(self.tmp, required=['f1'], optional=['f2'])